an investigation into the effects of social and physical factors, and instructional resources on performance
1
INTRODUCTION
Jamaica is the third largest landmass in the Greater Antilles of the West Indies. The island is located 90 miles south of Cuba and 100 miles west of Haiti. Its mountainous terrain spans an area of 235 kilometers (km) long, 80 km wide and covers a land area of 10, 991 squared kilometers. The country got independence from Britain on August 6, 1962, when the human population was 1,624,400 (STATIN 2001: xxvi). The nation’s population rose from 1,624,400 (in 1962) to 2,607,632 (in 2001) – (STATIN 2001: x). Of the latter aggregate, there were 1,283,547 males and 1,324,085 females, with 674,795 (this represents 25.6 per cent of the total population) being between the 15 and 29 age cohort years. Those ages represent the single largest age group of the total population (STATIN 2001, xxix). This group constitutes a significant percent of the pupils who attend the various secondary educational institutions. Those schools are located across the fourteen parishes. In the Population Census 2001, Jamaica, Volume 1, Report, STATIN cited that the literacy rate was 74 percent, with this social reality, what explains the dismally low academic performance of Sixth Form Accounting candidates? – (see Table II).
The country’s educational system was fashioned from the British system; as such, Grammar schools (i.e. Traditional high schools) were designed to supply pupils for further studies in addition to supplying ‘high quality’ employees for the public and private sectors. Traditional secondary-educational institutions continue to furnish tertiary educational institutions with candidates as they are the ones who have been tested and retested by way of external examinations for example by the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) and the University of Cambridge (Advanced and-or Ordinary Level examinations). Those educational institutions are across the entire geographical landscape of the island. Some of them are co-educational and single educational (i.e. either boys only or girls only) with a few being private. The educational system of Jamaica is predominately public where the Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture on the behalf of the government is responsible for the administration of those schools. Even though the private educational institutions are not governed and-or administrated by the Ministry of Education, they must adhere to the regulations of the Ministry. This study will garner data from a sample of all the educational institutions that teach the Advanced Level Accounting syllabus within the island with the purpose of establishing external validity as well as providing information for further study.
Today’s world mainly calls for examinations in the assessment of peoples’ aptitude and abilities. That social reality means that there is skewness towards and a positive relationship between examination results and academic performance. That is, the yardstick for evaluating an individual’s knowledge reservoir, skills level and competence in performing a particular task is an examination. In order for an individual to be considered an authority within any field s/he is expected to have successfully sat examination(s). Consequently the formal education is the metre used in assessing future social development and even success. Hence the criterion according to many stakeholders in judging competence is crucial evidence that determines the learned skills, knowledge, expertise and standards that the teachers apply to a classroom of students. As such, this answers questions like is the child doing well in his/her school work, or is s/he not doing well a particular discipline.
Based on what obtains in Western culture that academic performance is measured on examination grades, this is the reason behind the researcher’s intention to critically analyze social, and physical factors and instructional resources in order to comprehend their impact on the population’s success or failure rate on the A’ Level Accounting examination.
The researcher is not advocating for the present system that exists, instead he is forwarding a position that although a student might be an excellent academic performer during normal class times (outside of examinations), his or her output in terms of examination results may be affected by physical factors such as: diet, illness; psychological factors, instructional resources or event social settings. It is believed that these are critical factors in assessing the performance of Advanced Level Accounting students. From this vantage point, the British system of using examinations in determining success/failure is highly flawed. Nevertheless, the reason for this investigation is primarily due to the below average performance of candidates who have sat the same examination over the years, as their grades reflect a REASON for alarm (see table 1).
Table 1
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION SYNDICATE
ADVANCED LEVEL ACCOUNTING (JUNE) – Entries and Percentage Passes of Jamaican candidates
YEAR
ENTRIES
NO. SAT EXAM.
% PASS
1982 133 133 4.5
1983 313 313 36.8
1984 459 459 28.3
1985 628 628 43.5
1986 679 679 48.5
1987 819 819 37.7
1988 934 607 43.1
1989 1034 763 6.9
1990 1340 4.9
1991 1339 1144 4.0
1992 1187 38.7
1993 1227 1062 27.8
1994 1587 23.6
1995 1271 31.4
1996 1603 1336 38.7
1997 1689 1387 34.1
1998 1725 * 29.6
1999 * * *
2000 473 230 48.6
2001 573 190 33.
*
2002 * * *
SOURCE: i. STATISTICAL YEARBOOK OF JAMAICA, 1990 – 1999
ii. STATISTICAL ABSTRACT (PUBLICATIONS 1982 – 1992)
* Missing figures
** Public school only and for the private schools it was (336 candidates; pass rate 14.9%)
The data in Tables I and II revealed that there are wide gaps between the success rate of those candidates who sat the Principles of Accounts examination in Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) and that of those who wrote the Advanced Level examination in the same discipline. Because the concentration of this study is primarily on performance, it is obvious from the figures in Table I that the rate of failure in the Advanced Level Accounting examination is vast in comparison to the CXC results (see table II). Therefore, the statistics highlight a need for us to unearth information in order to find solutions to the already low and deteriorating academic performance of candidates who written the Advanced Level accounting examination.
In 1982, table I begins with 4.5 percent or six (6) candidates of those who sat the Advanced Level Accounting examination having been successful (i.e. attaining a grade of A-E). This means that 95.5 percent of 133 candidates who sat the examination were unsuccessful. In 1983, 313 candidates sat the same discipline and of that total only 115 were successful (i.e. 36.8 percent). This indicates a failure rate of 73.2 percent of total number of candidates who sat the examination in the period. Although this represents a drastic reduction of 22.3 percent of the number of unsuccessful candidates to have sat the examination over the previous year, what is critical is that more than 50 percent of candidates were unsuccessful on the examination. That failure rate is absolutely unacceptable and highlight a need for the review of teachers’ performance, and whether or not the students who are been prepared are receiving the necessary skills, knowledge and competencies to successfully write the examination.
Table 2
C.X.C PRINCIPLES OF ACCOUNTS (JUNE – GENERAL PROFICIENCY) Results – Entries and Percentage Passes of Jamaican candidates
YEAR
ENTRIES % PASS
1982 35 65.71
1983 39 58.97
1984 92 57.61
1985 116 75.86
1986 1544 68.8
1987 1372 70.8
1988 1768 50.1
1989 1873 56.0
1990 8213 28.4
1991 7161 29.4
1992 6909 41.6
1993 7060 43.1
1994 7336 53.3
1995 7289 42.7
1996 7623 57.5
1997 12808 71.0
1998 8450 47.0
1999 6892 78.3
2000 6588 76.2
2001 6305 85.5
2002 6416 87.2
2003 6262 84.0
SOURCE: i. STATISTICAL YEARBOOK OF JAMAICA, 1990 – 1999
ii. STATISTICAL ABSTRACT (PUBLICATIONS 1982 – 1998: 52, 54, 60, 63)
iii. Jamaica Education Statistics, 1999 – 2000; 2000/2001
In 1985, the numbers of candidates who sat and passed the examination (Advanced Level Accounting) were 43.5 percent or 273 person from an aggregate of 628 applicants. This represents approximately a one hundred percent increase over the previous year. This success continued over into the following year with a minute improvement of 5 percent. There is a saying that goes “success is only for a season” and so it was when in 1987 the success rate fell to 37.7 percent (i.e. -10.8 percent). In 1988, a miraculous increase occurred when the success rate rose by 5.4 percent over the previous year. Then a flood of disappointing performances followed 1988, when the success rate fell exponentially by over 300 percent and the spiral continued to 1991. Although dramatic recoveries did occur following post 1991, the success rate is superfluous in comparison to that of Trinidad and Tobago in table 3 on page 9.
From table I, the success rate revealed that over the 20-year period, it is on only one occasion that the students’ academic performance was approximately 50 percent and that year was in 1986. Therefore, this highlights the need for the re-evaluation of the Advanced Level Accounting examination as it relates to the candidates, the environment, the materials, the teachers and social factors; so that we may be able to address this issue before a major problem occurs in the future. Continuing on this path of a high failure rate at the Advanced level have implications for the accounting profession, the society and cadre of our accounting stock supply and so this matter is of concern to resident Jamaicans, non-resident Jamaicans and non-Jamaicans alike.
We have analyzed the Advanced Level and the Ordinary Level Accounting Examination results, and apart from the disparity in successes of the candidates who sat both the two (2) levels, it should be noted that the former subject is a requirement for further studies at the University level and so their results indicate a distressing socio-economic problem for future accountants. In addition, the researcher is bewildered by the continuous low academic performance of pupils who continue to write the Advanced Level examination. This is because disparity between the Ordinary level and the Advanced Level Accounting results are exponentially ranged. In identifying this shortcoming, the researcher consulted the examiners’ reports to provide an assessment of students’ performance. The reason is that those Reports will provide a detailed evaluation of the candidates’ strengths and weaknesses as seen through the eyes of the examiners. Those Reports furnish external validity and reliability of the examination and as such are crucial in providing an understanding of the reason for the poor academic performance of the Advanced level accounting which is the base on which the researcher will analyze those documents. This study will be “An investigation into the effects of social and physical factors, and instructional resources on the academic performance of Advanced Level accounting candidates in Jamaica”.
EXAMINERS’ REPORT
The 1999 Report posited generally that the papers provided a good and balanced coverage of the Syllabus and gave the candidates the opportunity of demonstrating their ability in understanding the accounting information system, in preparing and evaluating accounting systems and reports, and in handling quantitative problems critically and analytically. The Examiners’ Report delineated that the paper was designed to enable candidates to successfully complete the examination (see Appendix III).
If the papers according to the Examiners’ Report were set with a balanced coverage of the syllabus, then serious questions need to be asked about the performance of the Jamaican candidates and their teachers alike. In other words, dismally low academic performance of candidates on the examination year after year speaks to the growing trend of problems in the education system in Jamaica. The fact this matter is of fundamental importance to all facets of the country’s economic development, the issue must be studied, understood and instantaneously remedied before the issue becomes chronic.
The Advanced Level Accounting Reports from the University of Cambridge highlight the fact that candidates who wrote the papers were either not being prepared properly or that they lack the higher degree of knowledge, skill and competence, and obviously have not attained the level required for the Advanced Level examination. The Report posited that, this level of accounting demands more than a mechanical reproduction of knowledge that is what was taught to candidates who wrote the Ordinary Level/Caribbean Examination Council examination (see A’ Level Examiners’ Report, 1997).
The researcher having been a teacher for more than fourteen (14) years, teaching accounting at both levels throughout a number of traditional, comprehensive, private, technical and upgraded high schools has observed over the years countless number of candidates who have paid for the Principles of Accounts examination (CXC/Ordinary level) would normal intensely prepare for the paper the night before. However, an over night reading of the text along with any vigorous practice of the content of the subject will not suffice for the Advanced level accounting syllabus. It is evident that at this new level (Advanced Level) there are certain skills, knowledge and competencies that must be mastered thorough the two (2) year period of preparation before the actual day of the examination. Otherwise, they are not adequately prepared to write the papers- the evidence is shown in Table I.
If Jamaica seeks to encourage a high level of production and an increase in productivity beyond where it is presently situated, the Government and the Private Sector must recognize the dilemma to which we are falling year after year. There is a need to tackle the product of our education, the educational system must provide our people with the prerequisite skills, and knowledge in that they may be able to keep abreast of world. Given that we rely on Sixth Form students so this country as the architects of intellectual development with their dismally low academic performance over the years as it relates to Advanced Level Accounting, all sectors within the Jamaican landscape must be concerned and move immediately to arrest such a situation. Our concern must be backed by corrective measures that must be implemented to ensure that those repeatedly low success rates be abated now.
The researcher, however, does not subscribe to the notion as seen by the Cambridge Examiners’ that the Advanced Level Accounting candidates are not furnished with the required skills, knowledge and the competencies that are needed to successfully write the examination. Instead, the researcher is postulating that sociological factors are indeed important phenomena that explain the low performances by the Jamaican candidates. Therefore, this present investigation will explore and unearth the impact of sociological factors on students’ skills level, knowledge base and competencies that directly affects their academic performance.
The academic non-performance of grammar school students is not solely a relationship between any one sociological factor and examination results but is multi functional and so cannot be explained with factors void of the social settings of the students.
The researcher believes that the concluded paragraph by Kristina K. Rudiger (M.P.H, M.Ed.) in an article titled School Health Programs and Academic Achievement is relevant.
“The physical and mental well being of students is a prerequisite for achieving our educational objectives. The goals of schools are consistent with the goals of health promotion. Because healthy children learn better than children with health problems, to achieve their education mission, schools must help address the health needs of students. The health of our youth is too important to be left to chance. Programs aimed at reaching our youth must begin early, well before the first grade in kindergarten. They must continue throughout the student’s high school years. Every child’s educational success is important, just as every child’s health is important.”
It is the failure of the educational system in Jamaica to understand and execute a continuous plan of action that balances health and students well being so as to maximize students’ innate capabilities that we are left without that results in success rate as shown in Table I (see Appendix II).
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Peter Abbott (1993) posited that Jamaica is one of the countries in the Third World and the Western Hemisphere with the highest failure rate in the Principles of Accounts Examination at the General Certificate of Education Advanced Level. It is this fact that highlights the need for such a study on this phenomenon. The researcher was only able to find available statistics for Trinidad and Tobago (see Table 3 – Appendix II). Therefore, he will not agree with the external validity of previously mentioned author’s work. A crucial question for all Jamaicans is why?
Based on the value in Table III (see Appendix II) in comparison to those figures for Jamaica in Table I (see Appendix II), Trinidad and Tobago’s students are performing at a superior level compared to that of their Jamaican counterparts. In Table III, the lowest success rate for Trinidad and Tobago’s candidates over the years is 57.9 (in percent) compared to 4.0 (in percent) in Jamaica. In regards to the highest success rate Jamaica has had a 48.7 percent compared to a Trinidad’s 68.9. It should be noted that Jamaica sent in excess of 100 percent more students in absolute value to the numbers of students that Trinidad and Tobago (1,200,000 people) sent, and the failure of the Jamaican candidates in absolute terms is exponentially more than those sent by the later. As such, this forms another reason for the purpose of this study.
“What we are looking for is the ability of the students to use the knowledge of the subject and apply it to particular circumstances” he said (Abbott, 1993). The Examiners’ Report 1999 submitted by the University of Cambridge concurred with Abbott’s stance speaks to flaws with the A’ Level programme (see Literature Review). Therefore, the researcher felt that this study on completion would answer a number of questions regarding the academic performance of candidates who are writing the Advanced Level Accounting examination. The researcher is convinced that the investigation would highlight whether Sixth Form students are furnished with sufficient knowledge, skills and competence to successfully write the accounting papers.
The Advanced level accounting Reports from the University of Cambridge highlighted that students were either not being adequately prepared or that they lacked that higher degree of knowledge and skills, and obviously have not attained the level required by the examination. The Reports states that, “this level of accounting demands much more than a mechanical reproduction of knowledge”. Based on the low levels of successes at the examination, it is evident from the results that the pupils have not mastered certain skills, knowledge and competencies. Meaning, many of the accounting candidates have not been able to gain a grade “E” the lowest credible pass at the examination. This supports the crucial ness of research.
If on completion it is found that the proposed competencies, skills and knowledge were not being adequately imparted to students in the Teaching/Learning process, the researcher will be more than willing to make available copies of the recommendations to all participating institutions.
This project will mainly be beneficial to two (2) groups: Firstly, teachers and students and secondly policy makers. In that, if the Document with the Recommendations and their Findings when received by the Business Education, Heads of Department at the various high schools was to be critically analyzed and implemented, then there should be improvements in the standard of candidates sitting the examination. In addition, if administrators of policies were to implement some of the recommendations and-or use this study as a benchmark for further investigation into the issues of providing answers, then fundamental changes will be forthcoming as they relate to improvements in the A’ Level Accounting program.
By providing recommendations, the researcher feels that this will automatically produce higher quality scripts being prepared by sixth form candidates.
The low academic performance of candidates who have written the Advanced Level accounting examination over the years is mainly seen through the scope of knowledge, skills level and competence without the in-depth understanding of social factors such as class attendance; physical factors for example diet, exercise, or illness; instructional resources which includes textbooks, and past papers; and those matters are supporting reasons for the successes or failures of our Jamaican students that have been sidelined as it relates to this examination.
Main Objective
1.0 To examine the relationship between the academic performances; social, physical factors and instructional resources of students in Traditional High Schools in Jamaica who write the Advanced Level Accounting, and to determine the extent to which the relationship differs based on gender.
Specific Objectives
1.1 To determine to what extent of the relationship between academic performance and social factors; and if this relationship varies, based on gender;
1.2 To ascertain if physical factors positively impact on students’ academic performance and if this relationship differs among males and females;
1.3 To determine if there is a positive relationship between instructional resources and academic performance of students and ascertain if this relationship differs among gender.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Are social factors enabling Sixth Form student to successfully complete the Advanced Level Accounting Examination?
2. Do Sixth Form students possess the relevant instructional resources that will help them to successfully write the Advanced Level Accounting syllabus?
3. Are physical factors crucial in determining the success rate of Sixth Form student on the Advanced Level Accounting examination?
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
David Hargreaves (Haralambos 1997, 5:231) states that, “many schools fail to produce a sense of dignity of working-class. If pupils fail to achieve individual success in competitive exams they will tend to rebel and fail to develop a sense of belonging within the school.” The researcher concurs with that conclusion within the Jamaican experience; students who are the most indisciplined oftentimes are within the group of poor academic achievers (i.e. failure at examinations). Haralambos writing revealed that, “To acquire dignity a person must achieve a sense of competence, of making a contribution to, and of being valued by, the group to which he or she belongs.” Here Hergreaves’s positions reflect the structure of the world as it relates to accomplishment, being successes on a competitive examination in order to establish competence. Meaning that, there is much stress levied on the individual to compete on an examination in order to establish worth, mastery and that of being valued by society. This explains why sociologists of the modern school including Hargreaves believed that the individual should have some sense of freedom to pursue disciplines of his/her interest or talent and not be totally dictated to by the social institution – the school. That is, the education system is rigidly structured to measure students’ performance in order to allocate human resources within the role-structure of adult society.
“Conformity and obedience therefore bring their own rewards. Finally, students emerge from the educational system with a variety of qualifications that they and others believe have provided them with the training, skills and competence for particular occupations. Illich rejects this belief. He argues that ‘The pupil is schooled to confuse teaching with learning, grade advancement with education, a diploma with competence,” Haralambos (1997:5,236) said. The researcher concurs with Haralambos’ views. The present ‘Westernized’ model is designed around qualification, success, achievement and competence as measured by a competitive examination that cannot be a true reflection of individuals’ depth of knowledge, skill base or even mastery in a task.
The Journal of Education (1981) posited that performance might be seen as an index of the candidates’ ability and motivation. In that, the success of teaching is in engaging in giving direction, as that fact is observed as affecting performance.
The Journal of Education (op cit) further commented that the Jamaican economy relies heavily on graduate output of the University of the West Indies to supply the needed expertise in technological, commercial and professional fields. In turn, the University of the West Indies depends on the Sixth Forms of Secondary High Schools (grammar school) to supply students capable of acquiring a particular expertise. Over the past few years however, wastage at the Sixth Form level in Jamaican Grammar schools has led to setting up of a working party by the Jamaican government to consider post Ordinary Level Education.
In Jamaica, an investment in Sixth Form Education at the Secondary level requires thorough investigation if the overall outcome continues to be between 4.0 and 45.8 percent success rate in the Cambridge Advanced Level Accounting Examination. Students who participate in the Sixth Form programme of study are usually University aspirants and represent meritocratic elite in the Jamaican Educational system. This small and selected group of young adults has elected to pursue this course of study after attaining a minimum of grade III or a grade C at the CXC/Ordinary Level examination (since, 1998).
The performance of Advanced Level candidates (post Caribbean Examination Council) has been deteriorating disappointingly (see Appendix II). The Journal (op cit) noted that the continuing wastage at the Sixth Form Level demands that improvement in the Advanced Level Achievement of Jamaican Students be treated as a priority. As such, consideration and speedy implementation of some or all of the recommendations offered by the Working Party provide a starting point on which to develop those improvements best able to assist in equipping Sixth Formers for providing Jamaica with the technological, commercial and professional skills vital to the Nation’s Economic, political, social and psychological development.
You may want to argue that the Journal of Education was published in 1981, so looked at issues of that period and not beyond to 2004. The issue today is, have systems been implemented to curtail those matters that were place in the Journal of Education in 1981. If not, the argument still holds true as the situation is the same as before the research was done by that agency. Now, you will see that such performance has continued to occur, when Lloyd Brown (1989) posited that, the results of the Advanced Level Examinations in 1988 in Jamaica could hardly be encouraging to the child going into Sixth Form. Continuing, the statistics revealed that a candidate is highly likely to fail the examination (that is, 6/10 chance that s/he will fail the papers) Brown, 1989. The statistics on students’ successes showed that an individual chance of being successful in 2004 is 4/10. The worrying spiral downward trends in successes of candidates who have sat the examination are depressing to the eyes and the human capital development of this country. Because the failure rate is high or very high, thorough the history of the examination, the researcher have wonders whether the Parents and Children have been advised of the challenge of the Sixth Form Programme.
Pupils who leave for the Fifth Form Level of education where they have just completed the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) or Ordinary Level (O’Level) programme are experiencing severe problems at the lower Sixth Form Level (Brown, 1989). Based on Table II (see Appendix II), Brown’s findings are true as the facts from the A’ Level examination results clearly concurs with Brown. The researcher’s own experience at the Advanced levels affirms Brown’s postulations on the matters, as he believes that he got no prior preparation for this new mental rigour and depth of application. Hence, this still leaves unanswered “Are students being furnished with the relevant skills, knowledge and competencies for the Advanced Level examination?” If not, the inevitable occurs – frustration, inability to cope and ultimately failure on the path of many candidates. Brown states, “Having been fed a diet of dependency, the pupil approaches the Sixth Form programme in the same manner and s/he is really badly shaken when he/she realizes that he/she must use a different approach, if s/he is to achieve academic excellence”. This leaves yet another unanswered issue, the difference between the Ordinary and Advanced Level examination and the teachers understanding of the requirements of latter. What is the social reality and social meanings that are out there that explain the sub-performance of A’ Level candidates?
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
On the point of academic performance or excellence, Tuckman (1975) posited that, “performance is used to label the observable manifestation of knowledge, skills, concepts, and understanding and ideas”. Hence, what is happening to our students who have sat and will continue to write the Advanced level examinations? If performance is the accomplishment of set tasks in a course objective in order to meet the requirement of examination syllabus, what explains the difference between the high performance in O’ Level and A’ Level (see Appendix II). Thereby, performance is the application of a learning product that at the end of the process provides mastery.
The acquisition of particular grades on examinations indicate candidates ability, mastery of the content, skills in applying learned knowledge to particular situations. A student’s success is generally judged on examination performance. Success on examinations is a crucial indicator that a student has benefited from a course of study (Wiseman, 1961). Why? Fishman (1962) states that, “all British studies have relied on examination performance”. This reality provides the basis on which performance is measured by Western civilization.
However, Harrison (1974), a Jamaican, posited that although an examination is not a perfect measure of educational success of pupils, it is an important indicator in this country’s educational systems and such cannot be ignored. It should be noted that the British established the educational system in Jamaica and so one should understand why this position is widely accepted.
The researcher believes that authentic academic performance should involve an examination of the total person. Meaning the examination should cover individual’s academic ability, and skills in applying practical abilities.
SKILLS
Joan Freeman (1993) states that, “Good intellectual skills have to be learnt, although basic sensory awareness naturally is a normal condition”. Meaning, ones intellectual ability to cope with incoming information, store it in flexible category in the memory, retrieve it for application to different situations, and adopt new information, all have to be refined to reach levels of competence. This process needs directive teaching, such as in learning to distinguish between shapes, recognizing forms and estimating distances to mention a few skills. All the senses are teachable to develop them into intellectual skills.
It is through skills such as reading, and listening that an individual acquires information (Lindgren, 1976). The need for information about the world is a challenge that we can only meet by acquiring and using appropriate skills, and it is impossible to learn skills without using information. Wright (1987) agreed with Lindgren when he posited that, it is important for beginners in accounting to be accurate about facts and information concerning their tasks. Meaning, in being accurate about facts and information, reading skill is being utilized. Hence, is it that A’ Level candidates are faced with the challenge of substandard reading skills? This issue may be an undiscovered reality that could explain the performance of the Jamaican candidates who write the examination.
Accuracy is necessary for a business to stay in existence. It therefore means that, workers have to utilize as much skills as possible in this area. Meaning that ultimately to this end are the Sixth Form Students being prepared. By reading and listening, then the skill of comprehension will be improved. It can be noted that at the point where the students understand what is expected, then they will be ale to perform the tasks more competently. The ability to listen to instructions is an important factor to be considered. This will enable the students to produce accurate work and efficient work.
One will agree with Wright (op cit), when she states that, “penmanship is important.” If a person’s handwriting is not readable by others, then the information is of no use. While writing legibly, it should be with speed. This is because deadlines have to be met, and there are always other works to be done. In the speed of task, spelling should be accurate. Where there is inaccuracy, the information is sometimes misleading.
Accounting requires constant calculation of figures to aid the gathering of information. It is therefore, important for students to be able to use the skill of computation efficiently. As such, it is evident that students need to have the ability to do arithmetic. This is the key as students must be able to do basic mathematics to produce accurate information.
Communication is another extremely important skill that is required by students that need mentioning. In the Accounts Department, everyone will use accounting records; therefore, there is the need for an interactive communication system built between employees. This would therefore create an atmosphere in which the objectives of the firm can be achieved to which the Sixth Form Students are being prepared to work.
Freeman (op cit) postulated that, the processes of intellectual development are not confined to the simple acquisition of skills; each new skill adds to and changes what has already been tried out. Perception is learnt from experience and it affects reasoning: good reasoning based on mistaken perceptions will produce faulty conclusions. Good quality education is largely concerned with correcting misconception and by broadening a child’s view, in such a way that the individual can reach personal conclusions from what s/he has observed.
Freeman (op cit) argued that analytical skills are sometimes called successive progressing which uses information in a time sequence. Meaning that one thought must logically follow another. In that, each process is linked in the chain of reasoning being dependent on the last. This is demanded from Accounting Students.
In regards, numeric skills Freeman (op cit) posited that, new ideas are reshaping the teaching of numeric skills. The style of calculations that parents learnt as children has fallen into disuse because the focus has been redirected away from numbers and towards logical relationships and mathematical languages. Instead of doing arithmetic in school, children are now likely to measure rooms, desk, consider, classify distinguish, differentiate and compare many aspects of what they have discovered for themselves.
To support the above statement McNical’s (1979) view was that, in the performance of any skill, the skill the student is consciously or unconsciously, based his/her movements on acquired knowledge. If the learner does not know the relevant basic knowledge in certain areas, his/her performance will lack some of the characteristics of the skill expected. For example a worker who has to use tool(s) must be aware of the use of each piece of equipment so that he/she can choose the right one(s) for the Job; because if s/he uses the wrong tool(s) the results of the job could be an inferior product and “awkward” movement in trying to reach the prescribed goal.
On the issue of study skills, Ann Irving (1985) argued that, the teaching of study skills has become an important issue in Secondary Education. We would have noticed over the years that despite the methods and materials of the teaching/learning process, many pupils are still unable to improve their learning.
Irving (op cit) argued further that, pupils fail to put into practice the full range of skills and habits they possess. The emphasis on talk is made into the belief that pupils develop their ideas more quickly through talking that writing and that expression and organization of ideas in writing will best occur where there is some organization in the mind of the writer before writing begins.
On the matter of revision and examination preparation skills, Irving (op cit) argued that, before the examinations were to begin, pupils should be given lessons on how to prepare for their examinations. In particular, they should be taught how to write a revision plan. Once the plan had been written and corrected by the teachers, in the ensuring weeks time was spent advising pupils how to write revision notes, how to make the most of one’s memory and the importance of testing recall above all else.
Irving’s (op cit) view was that, the final week before the examination, the teachers should make the students aware of the problems that they are likely to encounter and how they might be overcome or at least reduced to proportions that are more manageable before the sitting of the examination.
KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge involves the recall of specifics and universals information, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting (Benjamin Bloom 1979). That is, for measurement purposes, the recall situation involves little more than bringing to mind the appropriate material. Although some alteration of the material may be required, this is a relatively minor part of the task. The knowledge objectives emphasize most of the psychological processes of remembering. Meaning, to use an analogy, if one thinks of the mind as a file cabinet, the problem in a knowledge test situation is that of finding the problem or task the appropriate signals, cues, and clues that will most effectively bring out the stored information.
The recall of specific and assailable bits of information is crucial for students on an examination (Bloom 1979). The emphasis here is on symbols with concrete referents. This material, which is at a very low level of abstraction, may be thought of as the element from which more complex and abstract forms of knowledge are built.
Knowledge of terminologies is crucial aspects of understanding the requirement of the preparation for an examination. Meaning that, referent to specific symbols must be used for interpretation of the examination papers. Bloom (op cit) added that, knowledge of dates, events, persons, places et cetera are important for the examination. These include very precise and specific information such as the specific date or exact magnitude of a phenomenon.
On the issue of principles and generalization, Bloom (op cit) revealed that, knowledge of particular abstractions summarize phenomena that are critical in the preparation process for the examination. These are abstractions which are of value in explaining, describing, predicting, or in determining the most appropriate and relevant action or direction to be taken.
The greater the knowledge bases of the reader/learner or student, the better the comprehension of textual materials. Meaning that, one way to account for this generalization is that knowledge can be viewed as an organized collection of information. New information as might be gathered through reading can be assimilated more thoroughly when existing cognitive structures and information already exist (Robert Solso 1988). Conversely, insufficient knowledge limits comprehension about the material as well as encodes the information being read.
COMPETENCIES
According to Joan Freeman (1993), “motivation always comes from the individual, although it results may be for the benefit of the community.” The tried and tested message to those who want to promote literacy in a community is that, if people are to participate, they must want it for themselves; they will neither learn nor maintain the skill if it does not fulfill what they feel they need. She classified three major reasons why people might want to aim for literacy:
“i. literacy strengthens people’s social position, increasing ability to receive information, while enabling them to contribute their own ideas;
ii. literacy provides hope of economic improvement, whether in finding employment or in running one’s own business more effectively;
iii. literacy provides access to information about gaining individual satisfaction: reading, moving about the country, writing one’s own name instead of a thumb print, mastering numeric, communication and analytical skills so as not to be cheating, knowing one’s own rights, and teaching others.”
Developmental Research findings are clear that cumulative social and economic influences strongly affect the individual’s competence and consequently his/her level of performance in the way it biases his/her expectations of life opportunities (Freeman 1993).
Freeman (op cit) revealed that, Formal Education should not be seen as the only route for developing the highest level of competency. If the skills and talents needed by society are limited to an elite, then, whatever way the elite is selected, there will inevitably be talented individuals whose potential contributions are not recognized and so are lost. Providing for individuals to develop their exceptional talents not only benefit each of them, but also is more than repaid to the society which has helped them in the development of their skills.
Another author Butler (1939) supported the views of Freeman when he posited that, the primary responsibility of instruction is to bring about the maximum degree of achievement in learning, ensuring maximum performance on the part of the teachers. To achieve this, Butler (op cit) argued that, competent teachers are necessary to attain this, and the teachers need to be properly trained and motivated in order to offer the students with the relevant competence for their examination.
The various studies forwarded have offered profound insights varied views, reasons and explanations for the existence of the low academic performance of candidates who have sat the Advanced Level accounting examination in Jamaica in respect to skills, knowledge and competence. The researcher, however, is convinced that social factors (i.e. class attendance, completion of assignment), psychological and environmental factors, and physical factors (diet, exercise, and health) are directly affecting the knowledge base, the skills level and competencies of students who will continue to write examinations in this society. As such, we must analyze and not neglect the significance of those factors contribution on the low academic performances of Jamaican students.
Are there any scientific research that shows the relationship between academic performance of students and improvements in class attendance and health? Answer – According to Kristina K. Rudiger (M.P.H., M.Ed.), in an article entitled School Health Programs and Academic Achievement , she wrote that “A study of 22,403 students participating in Iowa School-Based Youth Services Programs, with multiple services-including health services, documented students improved or maintained attendance and improved or maintained grade point average. These results were demonstrated repeatedly over 10 years.”
She revealed in other research that there is a positive relationship between class attendance, health and academic performance. She wrote that:
. California’s Healthy Start Support Services for Children. Schools and collaborative partners coordinated and integrated services-including health screening, counseling, dental, and vision care-across different child and family serving systems to make services more accessible at or near the school. An evaluation based on data collected found students academic achievement increased significantly. Test scores for schools in the lowest quartile improved substantially, reading scores for the lowest-performing elementary schools increased by 25 percent and math scores increased by 50 percent. Middle and high school students, most in need, improved their grade point average by 50 percent, adding 0.8 and 1.2 to their GPA.
. Florida’s Coordinated School Health Program (CSHP) Pilot Schools. Schools incorporated the eight CSHP components into their activities to enhance student health and promote the achievement of State Standards. Following the implementation of CSHP, two middle schools reported their Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test math scores improved by an average of 11.5 percent and reading scores by an average of 15 percent. School attendance also increased at each school.
. Physical Fitness. Schools offering intensive physical fitness programs found positive effects on academic achievement even when time for physical activity is taken from the academics including increased concentration; improved mathematics, reading, and writing test scores; and reduced disruptive behaviour;
. The California Department of Education Healthy Kids Program found the lowest performing schools had lower student physical activity levels, with little difference across schools in the top three quintiles. This suggests lowest performing schools may benefit from quality physical fitness programs; and
. A California Department of Education study found physically fit children perform better academically showing a distinct relationship between academic achievement and the physical fitness of California’s public school students;
. Nutrition. U.S. DHHS found that eating breakfast improved academic, behavioural, and emotional functioning;
. Nutrition. Appropriate diet studies found improved problem-solving skills, test scores, and school attendance rates.
. Absenteeism among students is clearly associated with school failure. Students missing more than 10 days of school in a 90-day semester had trouble remaining at their grade level. School-based health services reduce absenteeism by providing on site services.”
On the other hand, Dalzell-Ward (1974:23), a medical practitioner, commented that, “The deprivation of energy foods will result in excessive fatigue which will in turn diminish social and work performance and interfere with well-being.” Someone may argue that this position is biased as this represents a particular stance. But another medical practitioner and research, Schneider (1958:27), some sixteen (16) years prior to Dalzell-Ward wrote on physical education that, “its contribution to health are direct as organic power is developed, as the body structure and function are influenced, and as the activity serves the child’s urge to play and bring pleasure and satisfaction as important safeguards to his mental and emotional activity.” Meaning that foods directly impact on ones mental and physical well-being which is a significant contributor ingredient in academic performance as the latter phenomenon relies totally on mental and physical capability and ability to achieve successful results.
Therefore, what are the likely results of malnutrition? “Malnutrition adversely affects mental development, physical development, productivity, the span of working years – all of which significantly influence the economic potential of man,” Alan Berg (1973:9) said. Meaning that, without foods one will not have the capacity to function effectively as a normal human being. Which is reason why Alan Berg (1973:10) stated that, “malnutrition interferes with a child’s motivation, ability to concentrate and ability to learn, which ultimate affect the condition of the brain itself.” Is nutrition a new phenomenon in the last forty years? Answer – Berg (1973:13) offered the position from his research that, “The relationship of nutrition to productivity was well recognized a century ago by slave owners, to whom malnutrition meant depreciation of their capital.” Hence, this researcher is proposing that health offers one explanation of low academic performance. Continuing,
Kristina K Rudiger (2004) in an article entitled “School Health Programs and Academic Achievement” concurred with the researcher that, “In fact, many of today’s problems with students are actually health-related. Kids cannot learn if they are hungry, tired, hung over from alcohol, or worried about violence. We need to eliminate barriers that affect students’ readiness to learn. A variety of physical and mental conditions impact students’ school attendance and their ability to pay attention in class anger, and restrain from self-destructive impulses.”
Based on Rudger’s medical position, the researcher believes that dietary issues impact directly on the attention span, general achievement, short-term memory, social functioning and concentration that are needed in order that the pupils functioning productively and efficiently on examinations. Being that the Advanced Level Accounting examination requires an analytical mindset; a crucial tool is a sound mind that is attained through physical exercise, diet and a healthy being. Which are components for poor or good concentration? Rudiger (2004) said that, “Students’ health and its impact on their ability to perform well academically are receiving attention. Recent research examines how incorporating school health education and exercise improve academic performance.” A research conducted by the University of Washington concurred with Rudiger that “health impairments can result in a range of academic challenges for a student. Problems include missing class for unpredictable and prolonged time periods and difficulties attending classes full-time or on a daily basis.” The University continued by stating that, “health problems may also interfere with the physical skills needed to complete laboratory, computer, or writing assignments.” Meaning there is a relationship between academic performances and the impact of health, and the social factors on the individual who writes examinations. The Washington University posited that asthma, multiple sclerosis, arthritis, heart disease have had temporary to chronic impact on students’ academic performances. “The secondary effects of illness and the side effects of medications can have a significant impact on memory, attention, strength, endurance, and energy levels,” the University of Washington said. Is this, therefore, answering the question on the low performances of our Jamaican students on the Advanced Level accounting examination as shown by table 1 (pp.2).
The National College Health Assessment (NCHA, 2004) in an article entitled “Health Issues Impacting the Academic Performance of Cal Poly Pomona Students” revealed the following: “Mental health issues such as stress, sleep difficulties, relationship difficulties, and depression have the most significant impact on academic performance; Cold, flu, and sore throat, frequent reasons for visits to the Student Health Services are the second most common causes of poor academic performance among all college students; the use of alcohol causes a negative impact on academic performance.”
Another research revealed that, “Although Iowa progresses in school improvement, there is an emerging crisis to improve students achievement because some students continue to perform poorly and come to school not ready or able to learn. With all students being at risk and over one-half of all students having health conditions, research links healthy students and improved academic achievement. This scientific research provides direction for school to incorporate school health programs to improve academic achievement. In addition, health promoting communities and schools are addressing the needs of students in poor health and not learning well, students with poor health practices that drain educational resources, and student choices affecting their health. The results are encouraging.”
The researcher, however, believes strongly that Advanced Level accounting students’ academic achievements cannot go unnoticed as indefinitely as the implications are profound for the society and so the matter must be addressed by focusing on eliminating barriers that affect those low performances. If a widespread case exist that students are entering class without being ready for schoolwork then the society’s primary focus must be on providing mechanism that will adequately address those conditions that will allow the students to function effectively and productively while at school. Among some of the barriers that must be tackled are physical, emotional, instructional materials, emotional, and social/health conditions that directly affect students’ ability to succeed on examinations.
Haralambos (1996) wrote that, “Despite the differences between them cultural deprivation and cultural capital theories both emphasize the importance of cultural factors. However, it is possible that material factors, such as family income, play a part in determining levels of attainment. Lower social classes may lack the money to provide their children with the same educational opportunities as middle and upper class parents. Greater resources may allow parents to provide children with toys that are more educational, a greater range of books, a superior diet, and more space in the home to do homework, greater opportunities for travel, private tuition and access to private fee-paying schools. In all these ways more affluent parents can provide their children with advantages before they attend school and during their school career.”
It should be noted that Haralambos’s position exhibits clearly that social class impacts on the future achievement and academic performance of the upper/middle class children within our society. In that the lack of money by the working-class (or lower class) inhibits their ability to provide the instructional resources, the diet, the psychological advantage and the access of human resources to enhance productivity of their children on examinations. Meaning, if the child/ren is/are not provided with the appropriate and adequate instructional resources that effectively and comprehensively covers a syllabus, the child is automatically placed at a disadvantage of high academic attainment. In addition, with the proper diet, many of the working class children’s brain is properly nourished to enable them to enter the class home as high recipient of information to write the various examination at some future date. No money spells low performance that indicates the disparity in achievement in educational achievement of the various classes in our society.
Is there a disparity between the sexes as it relates to academic achievement? “In 1987/88, 62 percent of females left schools in the United Kingdom with a least one GCSE grade A-C or equivalent whereas the figure for males was 54 percent. On the basis of similar figures, females now also perform slightly better at A’ Level but not by some other measure,” O’Donnell (1997:110) said. Professor Errol Miller from the Department of Arts and Education concurred with the general findings in United Kingdom, by showing in his book on the marginalization of men that, the females are outstripping their male counterparts in academic, occupation and other endeavours. The researcher would like the readers to understand that the previous argument is not sexist or feminist in nature but reflects the general reality of the present Jamaican experience (see Statistical Abstract on Jamaica as it relates to examination performance on the various disciplines at different level of the educational strata).
All the academic works previously cited and positions forwarded have offered a variety of views, reasons and explanations for the existence of the low academic achievement of people generally on competitive examinations. It is through this in formation that the researcher will guide his study in an attempt to discover if those views provide invaluable information on Advanced level accounting examination failure/success rate in the Jamaican context. As such, the low achievement of many Jamaicans on this examination is as a result of the physical factors, social factors or instructional resources. The researcher will also be able to decipher any differences in his findings and the findings of those studies, in order to see whether or not the causes are different and therefore need to be researched more and addressed by the Jamaican society.
3
METHODOLOGY
This research, An investigation into the effects of social and physical factors, and instructional resources on the academic performance of Advanced Level accounting candidates in Jamaica, is primarily seeking to establish causal relationships between social, physical factors, instructional resources and academic performance by way of the survey method; as such, the positivists’ paradigm is the most suitable and preferred methodology. Further, this study will test a number of hypotheses (page 34) by carefully analyzing numbers in wanting to assess causality; hence, the positivist paradigm is the appropriate choice. The positivists’ paradigm assumes objectivity, impersonality, causal laws, and rationality. This construct encapsulates scientific method, precise measurement, deductive and analytical division of social realities. From this standpoint, the objective of the researcher is to provide internal validity of the study, which, will rely totally on the scientific methods, precise measurement, value free sociology and impersonality.
There is a vortex in the study with regards to low academic performance of Advanced Level Accounting students (see Appendix 2 ) and as such necessitates new analysis and insight. In attempt to unearth the “truth” about this dilemma of students’ performance, the survey method will be used to collect data. The data will be collected via a questionnaire (see Appendix I). Trained administrators within the schools will administer this instrument, which makes for divorcing the researcher from the researched. This makes for reducing any bias that may arise with the researcher and the subject.
In order to provide answers to the pressing social reality that has been plaguing the Jamaican A’ Level candidates, the deductive method will be employed within an analytical framework of statistics.
The study will design its approach similar to that of the natural science by using logical empiricism. This will be done by precise measurement through statistics (chi-square and Spearman). Stratified sampling (see page 41) will be the technique used to determine the sample frame of 500 researched. By using hypotheses testing, value free sociology, logical empiricism, cause-and-effect relationships, precise measurement through the use of statistics and survey and deductive logical with precise observation, this study could not have used the interpretivists paradigm. As the latter seeks to understand, how people within their social setting construct meaning in their natural setting which is subjective rather than the position taken in this research – an objective stance. Conversely, this study does not intend to transform peoples’ social reality by way of empowerment but is primarily concerned with unearthing a truth that is out there and as such, that was the reason for the non-selection of the Critical Social Scientist paradigm.
Hypotheses:
General hypothesis
A1. Physical and social factors and instructional resources will directly influence the academic performance of students who will write the Advanced Level Accounting Examination;
A2. Physical and social factors and instructional resources positively influence the academic performance of students who write the Advanced level accounting examination and that the relationship varies according to gender.
B1. Pass successes in Mathematics, Principles of Accounts and English Language at the Ordinary/CXC General level will positively influence success on the Advanced level accounting examination;
B2. Pass successes in Mathematics, Principles of Accounts and English Language at the Ordinary/CXC General level will positively influence success on the Advanced level accounting examination and that these relationships vary based on gender.
Specific hypotheses
1.1 The Academic performance of students at the Advanced Level is directly influenced by physical factors;
1.2 The Academic performance of students at the Advanced Level is directly influenced by physical factors and that the relationship varies based on gender.
2.1 Social factors of the Advanced Level accounting students do positively influence their academic performance;
2.2 Social factors of the Advanced Level accounting students do positively influence their academic performance and that this relationship varies based on gender
3.1 The academic performance of students who will write the advanced level examination is directly influenced by instructional resources;
3.2 The academic performance of students who will write the advanced level examination is directly influenced by instructional resources and that this relationship varies based on gender.
4.1 Pass success in Mathematics at the Ordinary/CXC General Proficiency level will positively influence success on the Advanced level accounting examination;
4.2 Pass successes in Mathematics at the Ordinary/General Proficiency level will positively influence success on the Advanced level accounting examination and that this relationship varies based on gender.
5.1 Pass success in English Language at the Ordinary/CXC General Proficiency level will positively influence success on the Advanced level accounting examination;
5.2 Pass successes in English Language at the Ordinary/General Proficiency level will positively influence success on the Advanced level accounting examination and that this relationship varies based on gender.
6.1 Pass success in Principles of Accounts at the Ordinary/CXC General Proficiency level will positively influence success on the Advanced level accounting examination;
6.2 Pass successes in Principles of Accounts at the Ordinary/General Proficiency level will positively influence success on the Advanced level accounting examination and that this relationship varies based on gender.
OPERATIONALIZATION
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
Performance is a used label for the observable manifestation of knowledge, skills, concepts, understanding and ideas. It can also be termed as the application of a learning product after mastery. Meaning, performance is the accomplishment of set tasks in course objectives in order to meet the specified requirements of an examination body (Tuchman, 1975). Hence, examination results will be used to measure academic performance.
PHYSICAL FACTORS
Exercise (physical fitness)
Diet – Breakfast
Illnesses – mental and physical
SOCIAL FACTORS
Class attendance, subjective social class
Self Concept
GENDER
Males and Females
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES
Availability of Textbooks and/or past papers, problem papers and solutions
RECODED QUESTIONS
Q6.1 Are you affected by any of the following illnesses?
________ Migraine ________ asthma
________ Arthritis ________ heart disease
________ Psychosis ________ drug addiction
________ Anxiety ________ depression
________ Sickle cell ________ hypertension
________ Diabetes ________fit (epilepsy)
________ None ________ numbness of the hand(s)
Other (specify): ____________________________________________________
Q6.1 will be recoded into a dichotomous variable:
Group One – Mental illnesses
. migraine
. anxiety
. drug addiction
. depression
Group Two – Physical illnesses
. numbness of the hands
. sickle cell
. diabetes
. heart disease
. hypertension
. arthritis
. asthma
- fit
PHYSICAL/MENTAL ILLNESSES
These variables were recoded into three groups
1. None, 2. At least one and 3. At least two
Note: The researcher isolated MIGRAINE in order to understand its influence or lack thereof on students’ academic performance. This variable was recorded as a dichotomous one: Group 1 - Yes, and Group 2 – No.
Q2. What is your age at last birthday (specify):______________________________
Q2 was recoded into three groups:
Group One – 16 – 17 yrs.
Group Two – 18 - 19 yrs.
Group Three – 20 – 25 yrs
Q20.1 How often do you consume the following per week? tick your choices
Frequency Breakfast Lunch Dinner
Seven times
Six times
Five times
Four times
Three times
Two times
One time
Never
Q20.1 will be recoded, breakfast, into three groups:
Group one – Frequently
Seven times
Six times
Five times
Group two – Moderately
Four times
Three times
Group three – Infrequently
Two times
One time
never
ACADEMIC PEFORMANCE
A. Interpreted based on a comparison between last term’s grades and this term’s grades;
B. Interpreted based on Q8.2, recoded as - Distinction
Credit
Pass
Fail
MATERIAL RESOURCES (i.e. Instructional resources)
Q21 – Q30.2 will be recoded in three groups
1. Low availability, 2. Moderate and 3. High Availability
EXERCISE (i.e. physical exercise)
Q35 – Q40 will be recoded in three groups
1. Infrequently, 2. Moderately, and 3. Frequently
ATTENDANCE 2 (i.e. class attendance)
Q9 – Q19 will be recoded into four groups
1. Very poor, 2. Poor, 3. Good and 4. Excellent
PAST EXAMINATION SUCCESSES (CXC General/GCE)
(see Appendix I, Q8.1)
Recode into four groups:
1. Fail
2. Grade 1/A
3. Grade 2/B
4. Grade 3/C
Q5.1 was recoded as SUBJECTIVE SOCIAL CLASS and into three groups
1. Lower class
2. Middle class
3. Upper class
Q31 – Q34.2, recoded as SELF CONCEPT
1. Low
2. Moderate
3. High
Population
The population will constitute all Sixth form students of Traditional (Grammar) High Schools in Jamaica who will be writing the Advanced Level Accounting Examination in either May/June 2005 and-or May/June 2006. In addition to the candidates of Traditional high schools within the discipline previously mentioned, the population will also include all private high schools’ candidates of the same subject. The final number of the population will be had when the schools’ administrator reporting the total number of candidates and-or prospective candidates that are presenting preparing for the examination in May/June 2005 and-or May/June 2006.
Sampling:
Stratified sampling is the method by which the sample frame will be selected for the purpose
of this study. These are the steps for arriving at the sampling frame:
i. make a listing of all the traditional and the private high schools that offer the Sixth Form A’ level accounting programme to individuals in Jamaica;
ii. based on (i) above, list all the schools in Jamaica based on the parishes they are within;
iii. (a) from the general listing in (ii) above, make a listing of schools based on:
1. all girls;
2. all boys;
3. co-educational;
iii (
based on (iii a) above, make a listing of all the students
iv. based on (iii a 1 and 2) above, assign a numerical value to each student within each stratum, example 001, .., (i.e., all girls, all boys and co-ed)
v. based on (iv) above, select 50 percent of males and 50 percent of females by the process of Lottery selection (i.e. numbers are placed in a transparent bottle and each number is randomly chosen base on an electronic system);
vi. based on (iii a3) above, stratify this in two groups – (i) males and (2) females;
vii. based on (vi) above, assign a numerical value to each student within each stratum, example 001, ..,
viii. based on (vii) above, select 50 percent of males and 50 percent of females by the process of the Lottery selection mechanism;
ix. the process of selection will be repeated until 500 participants are had;
x. the processs of sampling will be complete when it has yielded 250 males and 250 females;
xi. interview all chosen participants
SAMPLE DESIGN Figure 1
Questionnaire
The researcher chose to utilize this instrument as it is the most convenient and comprehensive tool in gathering pertinent data that are quantitative (see Appendix I). After this instrument has been constructed within the aforementioned parameters of the study, undergraduate students from the University of the West Indies (Mona campus) who have done Advanced Level Accounts will validate its objectives. Ensuingly, the questions will be modified based on the suggestions made by these undergraduate students. A pretest of the modified questionnaire will be given to a group of the students who are sixth-form students attending traditional high schools in Jamaica. This will be followed by another set of alterations that the researcher will present to his supervisor for approval. The pilot tests will be done in order to ensure that the:
i) items are clearly stated to avoid ambiguity;
ii) the variables are measured by the appropriate items
iii) the range of investigation was adequate
Once the questionnaires have been approved, they will be administered to both private and public schools that offer the grammar programme – that is, Advanced level accounting. To eliminate researcher bias, the questionnaires will be distributed by the school’s administrator. Based on the instructions of the researcher, students will be informed by the administrator to complete the questionnaire anonymously. Additionally students will be informed that they are not obligated to complete the questionnaire and have the option to discontinue answering the questions at any point.
VARIABLES:
Independent variables
SOCIAL FACTOR – CLASS ATTENDANCE, SOCIAL CLASS, SELF CONCEPT.
PHYSICAL FACTORS – PHYSICAL EXERCISE, BREAKFAST, ILLNESSES.
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES – TEXTBOOKS, PAST PAPERS.
Dependent variable
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
DESCRIPTION OF DATA
All the schools that offer the Sixth Form Advanced level accounting within Jamaica were selected for this study. Five-hundred (500) individuals were chosen from the fourteen parishes of the island. The sample was sub-divided according to gender, all boys, all girls and co-educational institutions. The population of students comprised of individuals of varying socioeconomic settings.
A two (2) stage stratified design was implemented by the researcher. Step one, involved the selection of traditional high schools at different levels of the socioeconomic status. The socioeconomic levels of some students were determined from the reputation of the high schools for consistently attracting students who can be categorized as belonging to upper class or middle-income families. It is believed that students of a particular background are more likely to attend certain schools as against others based on the researcher’s past observation of the social class settings within the Jamaican context. That is, there are some schools in the Jamaican experience that are chosen predominantly by the elite and-or by the upper/middle class, and some predominantly offered to the lower class.
The researcher sought an equal quota of males and females so that the desired sampling represents the views of population and not a particular gender.
EXPLANATORY MODEL Figure 2
Independent variable
Dependent
Independent variable
Control variable
CONCEPTUALIZATION
TRADITIONAL HIGH SCHOOL (GRAMMAR SCHOOLS):
The Caribbean Examination Council (1987) defined Traditional High Schools as the name given to those schools that received children through the eleven plus, Common Entrance Examination. And their courses of study are based on the British type grammar school of which emphasis is placed straight on academics and not on technical and-or vocational subjects (that is, motor skills training).
PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOL:
These schools are not funded by the Jamaican government as opposed to traditional high schools. However, their syllabus as it relates to Advanced Level accounting is the same as that offered by grammar schools.
SYLLABUS
A syllabus is an outline of the main points of a subject or a detailed course content that forms the curriculum for the subject.
EXAMINERS’ REPORT
A comprehensive document containing remarks on all the individuals who have sat an examination giving a detailed analysis of the candidates scripts with reference to general strengths and weaknesses as well as specific comment on each question as seen through the mind’s eyes of the examiners.
ADVANCED LEVEL
Post Caribbean Examination Councils’ General Proficiency and-or Ordinary Level.
SIXTH FORM STUDENTS
Pupils who have passed the Ordinary Level or the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) examinations and are pursuing pre-University courses in a Traditional High School for another two (2) years. The students however, would have had to attain a certain level of success (pre-1998 grades I/II, post-1998 grades I/II/III or A, B, C) at the CXC or Ordinary level examinations respectively.
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
Tuckman (1975) postulates that, “performance is used to label the observable manifestation of knowledge, skills, concepts, understanding and ideas. Performance can also be termed as the application of a learning product after mastery. It is the accomplishment of set tasks in a course objective in order to meet the requirements of examination bodies”. This method is therefore used by the researcher to measure success of students who would have sat or will sit the examination.
SKILLS
A skill is a fixed way of making many complex responses, usually at the sub-conscious level. That is, the acquisition and application of principles, concepts, procedures and knowledge in that these will be utilized to problem solve situations by analyzing issues and by applying a base of logics in order to complete the task. Therefore, the acquisition of skill is a learnt capacity to perform a given task or tasks accurately. This is a skill is the ability to use content, professional, and pedagogical knowledge effectively and readily in diverse teaching settings in a manner that ensures that all students are learning.
KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge is what one knows, by that the researcher means information or skills. That is, knowledge is a body of facts and principles accumulated by humankind in the course of time. The Chambers’ Foundation English Dictionary states that, “knowledge is that which is know, information or skills.”
COMPETENCE
The acquisition and utilization of skills, knowledge, and experience garnered through either formal or informal education that will allow the individual to perform assigned tasks with a high degree of mastery. Meaning, task that an individual is expected to perform successful and efficiently with a high degree of accuracy as s/he emerges from the learning process. Which is the possession of a satisfactory level of relevant knowledge and acquisition of a range of relevant skills that include interpersonal and technical components at a certain point in the educational process? Such knowledge and skills are necessary to perform the tasks that reflect the scope of professional practices.
Health
“A state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (World Health Organization, WHO).
ANALYSIS PLAN
The Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 12.0 will used to analyze the data. Cross Tabulations are used to ascertain the relationship between the dependent and the independent variables. The control variable is included to determine its influence on the overall relationship between the dependent and the independent variables. The method of analyses will be non-parametric chi-square test to determine if any relationship exists between the variables. In addition, the chi-square, Spearman will also be another non-parametric statistic that will be implemented in order to establish relationships among some variables. Contingency coefficient and Phi will be used to determine any the strength of any relationship that may exist between variables. The level of significance that will be used is alpha=0.05, at the 95 percent confidence level.
.
4
ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION
Univariate Frequencies on instrument
Table 4 Frequency and Percent Distributions of Explanatory Model Variables
VARIABLE COUNT AND PERCENT
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
Distinction 44 (37.9%)
Credit 20 (17.2%)
Past 46 (31.7%)
Fail 6. (5.2%)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
Better 49 (39.5%)
Same 36 (29.0%)
Worse 39 (31.5%)
GENDER
Male 58 (43%)
Female 77 (57%)
PHYSICAL EXERCISE (EXERCISE)
Infrequent 38 (29.2%)
Moderate 10 (7.7%)
Frequent 82 (63.1%)
MENTAL ILLNESS
None 92 (67.6%)
At least one 39 (28.7%)
At least two 5 ( 3.7%)
SUBJECTIVE SOCIAL CLASS
Lower class 18 (15.3%)
Middle class 95 (80.5%)
Upper class 5 (4.2%)
PHYSICAL ILLNESS
None 93 (68.4%)
At least one 36 (26.5%)
At least two 7 (5.1%)
MIGRAINE
Yes 31 (22.8%)
No 105 (77.2%)
CLASS ATTENDANCE
Very poor 9 (8.5%)
Poor 37 (34.9%)
Good 49 (46.2%)
Excellent 11 (10.4%)
MATERIAL RESOURCES
Low availability 10 (7.7%)
Moderate availability 40 (30.8%)
High availability 80 (61.5%)
BREAKFAST
Frequently 4 (3.0%)
Moderately 127 (95.5%)
Infrequently 2 (1.5%)
SELF CONCEPT
Negative 61 (46.6%)
Positive 70 (53.4%)
PAST SUCCESSES IN CXC/GCE COURSE:
Principles of Accounts
Fail 15 (11.2%)
Grade 1/A 49 (36.6%)
Grade 2/B 60 (44.8%)
Grade 3/C 10 (7.5%)
English Language
Fail 8 (6.1%)
Grade 1/A 43 (32.8%)
Grade 2/B 50 (38.2%)
Grade 3/C 30 (22.9%)
Mathematics
Fail 21 (16.2%)
Grade 1/A 20 (15.4%)
Grade 2/B 45 (34.6%)
Grade 3/C 44 (33.8%)
DIETARY REQUIREMENTS
Poor 66 (48.5%)
Moderate 70 (51.5%)
Good -------
Excellent -------
AGE
16 – 17 YRS 77 (57.0%)
18 – 19 YRS 52 (38.5%)
20 – 25 YRS 6 (4.4%)
The sample consists of 136 private and public grammar schools’ students in Kingston and St. Andrew, Jamaica. Of the 136 respondents, one individual did not respond to most of the questions asked including his/her age at last birth however, he/she did respond to the question on major illnesses. Of the valid sample size (i.e. 136 interviewees), 59 were males and 77 females. Some 31.6 per cent of the sample size was affected by at least one major mental illness for example migraine. Of those affect by mental illnesses, some 22.8 per cent of them indicated that they were experiencing migraine problems. None of the students of the valid sample size was eating properly according to definition of Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute on the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus, Jamaica. Although this research was not concerned with the number of calories that a male or a female should consume daily, none of the respondents was having all the daily dietary requirements. Approximately 48.5 per cent of the respondents indicated that they were eating poorly as was the standard used to measure dietary requirements.
Approximately 94.8 percent of the sample had an academic performance (based on the GCE grade system) above an E while 5.2 percent of the sample had failing scores. Academic performance was further classified into four (4) groups as follows; 1. Distinction (i.e. grades A and B – scores from 70), 2.Credit (i.e. C), 3. Pass (i.e. D and E) and 4. Fail (i.e. scores below 40 per cent). Further, the statistics (data) revealed that 40.0 percent of the respondents indicated that their academic performance (test scores - grades ) in Advanced Level Accounting was better this term in comparison to last term while 28.8 percent said their grades were the same in both terms in comparison to 31.2 percent who said their scores were worse. This 31.2 percent indicates a worrying fact that must be diagnosed with immediacy. In that, a marginal number of prospective candidates (i.e.39.5 %) were performing better in comparison to those who were performing worse (31.5%) (see table 4 above)
The information in table 4 showed that 3 percent of students were consuming breakfast on a regular basis while 1.5 percent of the same were having breakfast rarely in comparison to 95.5 percent of them who were having the same sometimes (i.e. moderately). Approximately 57.0 percent of the sample was between the age cohorts of 16 to 17 years, while 38.5 percent were between 17 to 19 years in comparison to 4.4 percent above 20 years. Of the sample of Advanced level accounting students, some 61.5 percent of them had a high availability of instructional resources; some 7.7 percent had little availability to material resources in comparison to 30.8 percent who had an averaged availability of instructional resources.
On to the issue of self-concept, 46.6 percent of the sample of students had a low concept of self, 29.8 percent with a moderate concept and 23.7 percent with a high concept of themselves. This brings me to another issue, 15.3 of the sample of students said they were from the lower class, 80.5 percent of them were from the middle class and 4.2 percent from the upper class.
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND SUBJECTIVE SOCIAL CLASS
Table 5 (N=99)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
Lower Middle Upper 0.790
Distinction 5 30 1
Credit 1 17 0
Pass 7 30 2
Fail 1 4 0
P>0.05
The results indicate that there is no relationship between academic performance and subjective social class (? 2 (2) = 0.790, p>0.05).
Based on Spearman’s correlation, at the 2 tailed level, the P= 0.883 which indicates that there is no correlation between academic performance and subjective social class.
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COMPARATE ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND SUBJECTIVE SOCIAL CLASS
Table 6 (N=108)
COMPARATIVE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
Lower Middle Upper 0.809
Better 5 36 1
Same 6 24 2
Worse 5 27 2
P>0.05
The results indicate that there is no relationship between past and present academic performance over the last Christmas term and Easter term, and subjective social class (? 2(2) = 0.809, p>0.05).
From Spearman’s correlation, at the two-tailed level, P= 0.999 that means there is no correlation between the two variables in table 6.
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND PHYSICAL EXERCISE
Table 7 (N= 110)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
Infrequently Moderately Frequently 0.233
Distinction 13 1 28
Credit 9 1 10
Pass 11 5 27
Fail 0 1 4
P>0.05
The results indicate that there is a relationship between academic and physical exercise (? 2(2) = 0.233, p>0.05).
From Spearman’s correlation, at the two-tailed level, P=0.787 which indicates that there is no correlation between academic performance and physical exercise.
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Table 8 (i) (N=113)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent
? 2
Low
Availability Moderate
Availability High
Availability
0.0000
Distinction 1 (2.3 ) 9 (20.5) 34 (77.3)
Credit 0 (0.0) 4 (20) 16 (80)
Pass 2 (4.5) 21 (47.7) 21 (47.7)
Fail 2 (40) 0 (0.0) 3 (60)
P<0.05
The results indicate that there is a relationship between material resources (i.e. instructional materials) and academic performance (? 2(2) = 0.0000, p<0.05). The results indicated that there is a significant relationship between the two variables previously mentioned. Of the students who had distinctions, approximately 2.3 percent of them had low number instructional resources while 77.3 percent of that had a high number of materials to work with. Of those in the credit grouping, approximately 80.0 percent of them had a high availability of resource materials in comparison with 20 per cent having a moderate number of available instructional materials. Approximately 60 percent of those who failed had a high number of available instructional materials to work with in comparison to 40 percent with few available resource materials at their disposal. As it relates to the coefficient of determination, instructional resources explain approximately 20 percent of the proportion of variation in academic performance. The strength of the relationship is moderate (cc = .442).
Table 8 (ii) presents the results of the Chi-Square analysis examining the relationship between the academic performance and instructional resources, controlling for gender.
Table 8 (ii) Relationship between academic performance and materials among students who will be writing the A’ Level accounting examination
Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent
Academic Performance Low
Availability Moderate
Availability High
Availability ? 2
Distinction Male - 0
- (0.0%)
Female – 1
- (3.8%) Male - 2
- (11.1%)
Female – 7
- (26.9%) 16
- (88.9%)
Female – 18
- (69.2) 0.000
0.060
Credit Male - 0
- (0.0%)
Female – 0
- (0.0%) Male - 0
- (0.0%)
Female – 4
- (28.6%) 6
- (100%)
Female – 10
- (71.4%) 0.000
0.060
Pass Male - 2
- (11.1%)
Female – 0
- (0.0%) Male - 12
- (66.7%)
Female – 9
(34.6%) 4
- (22.2%)
Female – 17
- 65.4%) 0.000
0.060
Fail Male - 1
- (50.0%)
Female – 1
- (33.3%) Male - 0
(0.0%)
Female – 0
- (0.0%) 1
- (50.0%)
Female – 2
- (66.7%) 0.000
0.060
Pvalue < 0.05
From table 8 (ii) above, the results indicate that there was a statistical significant relationship between academic performance and availability of resource materials of males and not for females. Meaning the relationship between instructional resources and academic performance was only explained by the male gender. In that, 88.9 percent of males who had distinction in their test scores had a high availability of resource materials for use while only 11.1 percent of them had moderate number of resource materials. Of those who had credit on their tests over the last six months, 100 percent of them had a high availability of instructional materials at their disposal. Of those who had obtained a pass, 22.2 percent of them had a high availability of resource materials, with 66.7 percent of them had moderate number of instructional materials in comparison to 11.1 percent with a low availability of materials. The data revealed that 50 percent of those who failed had a high availability of instructional materials with 50 percent of them had a low availability of materials. The coefficient of determination, that explains the proportion of variation of the academic performance among males, was 38.56 percent. The strength of the relationship was strong (cc = 0.62).
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND CLASS ATTENDANCE
Table 9 (N= 106)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
Very Poor Poor Good Excellent 0.697
Distinction 2 9 17 6
Credit 0 7 9 1
Pass 3 12 17 3
Fail 1 1 3 0
P>0.05
The results indicate that there is no relationship between academic performance and class attendance (? 2(2) = 0.697, p>0.05).
Using Spearman’s correlation, at the two-tailed level, the P of 0.188 indicates that there is no correlation between the two variables in table 9.
However, there is a correlation between comparative academic performance (i.e. students’ performance this term - Easter in comparison to last term – Christmas) and class attendance (P=0.047). Hence,
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND BREAKFAST
Table 10 (i) (N=114)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
Frequently Moderate None 0.045
Distinction 0 (0.0) 43 (100) 0 (0.0)
Credit 3 (15) 17 (85) 0 (0.0)
Pass 1 (2.2) 42 (93.3) 2 (4.4)
Fail 0 (0.0) 6 (100) 0 (0.0)
P>0.05
Based on table 10 (ii) above, the results indicate that there is a relationship between academic performance and the eating of breakfast (? 2(2) = 0.045, p<0.05). The results indicated that there is a significant relationship between the two variables previously mentioned. Of the students who had attained distinctions on the Advanced level accounting test over the last six months, 100 percent of them were having breakfast on a moderate basis. Of those whose academic performance was a credit over the same period, approximately 15 percent of them were eating breakfast on a regular basis in comparison to 85 percent who had the same on a moderate basis. Of those whose academic performance was a pass over the same period, approximately 2.2 percent of them were eating breakfast on a regular basis in comparison to 93.3 percent who had the same on a moderate basis and 4.4 percent of them had no breakfast whatsoever. Of those who were failing, 100 percent of them were eating breakfast on a moderate basis. In regards to the coefficient of determination, 10.18 percent of the proportion of variation in academic performance was explained by consuming breakfast in the mornings. The strength of the relationship is weak (cc = .319).
Table 10 (ii) presents the results of the Chi-Square analysis examining the relationship between the academic performances and eating breakfast, controlling for gender.
Table 10 (ii) Relationship between academic performances and eating breakfasts among A’ Level accounting students, controlling for gender
Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
Performance Frequently Moderate None Pvalue
Distinction Male - 0
- (0.0%)
Female - 0
(0.0%) Male - 17
- (100%)
Female - 26
(100%) Male - 0
- (0.0%)
Female - 0
(0.0%) 0.247
0.372
Credit Male - 1
- (16.7%)
Female - 2
(14.3%) Male - 5
- (83.3%)
Female - 12
(85.7%) Male - 0
- (0.0%)
Female - 0
(0.0%) 0.247
0.372
Pass Male - 0
- (0.0%)
Female - 1
(4.0%) Male - 19
- (95.0%)
Female - 23
(92.0%) Male - 1
- (5.0%)
Female - 1
(4.0%) 0.247
0.372
Fail Male - 0
- (0.0%)
Female - 0
(0.0%) Male - 2
- (100%)
Female - 4
(100.0%) Male - 0
(0.0%)
Female - 0
(0.0%) 0.247
0.372
Palue > 0.05
The results indicate that there is no relationship between academic performance and eating breakfast when controlled for gender (? 2(2) = 0.247 and 0.372, p>0.05. That is, gender does not explain the relationship between eating breakfast and academic performance.
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND MIGRAINE
Table 11 (N=116)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
No Yes 0.868
Distinction 34 10
Credit 14 6
Pass 36 10
Fail 5 1
P>0.05
Based on table 11 above, the results indicate that there is no relationship between academic performance and migraine (? 2(2) = 0.898, p>0.05).
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND MENTAL ILLNESSES
Table 12 (N=116)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
None At least one At least two 0.100
Distinction 32 8 4
Credit 12 8 0
Pass 30 16 0
Fail 5 1 0
P>0.05
Based on table 12 above, the results indicate that there is no relationship between academic performance and experiencing mental illnesses (? 2(2) = 0.100, p>0.05).
By using Spearman’s correlation, at the two-tailed level, the P(value)= 0.967 that indicates no correlation between mental illnesses and academic performance.
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND PHYSICAL ILLNESSES
Table 14 (N=116)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
None At least one At least two 0.977
Distinction 31 10 3
Credit 14 5 1
Pass 30 13 3
Fail 5 1 0
P>0.05
Based on table 14 above, the results indicate that there is no relationship between academic performance and physical illnesses (? 2(2) = 0.977, p>0.05).
By using Spearman’s correlation, at the two-tailed level, the P (value) =0.912 that indicates no correlation between physical illnesses and academic performance.
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND
Table 15 (N=116)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
None At least 0.817
Distinction 31 13
Credit 14 6
Pass 30 16
Fail 5 1
P>0.05
Based on table 15 above, the results indicate that there is a relationship between academic performance and physical illnesses (? 2(2) = 0.817, p>0.05).
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE and ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Table 16 (N= 112)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
FAIL GRADE 1/A GRADE 2/B GRADE 3/C 0.539
Distinction 4 (9.1) 13 (29.5) 18 (40.9) 9 (20.5)
Credit 2 (10.5) 8 (42.1) 5 (26.3) 4 (21.1)
Pass 2 (4.7) 10 (23.3) 20 (41.5) 11 (25.6)
Fail 0 (0.) 4 (66.7) 1 (16.7.) 1 (16.7)
P>0.05
Based on table 16, the results indicate that there is no relationship between past performance in English Language at the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) or the Ordinary Level and academic performance at the Advanced level (in accounting) (? 2(2) = 0.539 p>0.05).
By using Spearman’s correlation, at the two-tailed level, the P (value) =0.581 indicates no correlation between past success in English Language at the Ordinary Level or the General Proficiency level (i.e. CXC) and academic performance.
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE and MATHEMATICS
Table 17
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent
? 2
FAIL GRADE 1/A GRADE 2/B GRADE 3/C
0.560
Distinction 6 10 17 10
Credit 5 3 4 7
Pass 7 5 14 7
Fail 1 0 3 2
P>0.05
Based on table 17, the results indicate that there is no relationship between past performance in Mathematics and today’s academic performance in Advanced level accounting (? 2(2) = 0.560 p>0.05). By using Spearman’s correlation, at the two-tailed level, the P (value) = 0.196 represents no correlation between past success in Mathematics at the Ordinary Level or the General Proficiency level at CXC and academic performance.
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE and PRINCIPLES OF ACCOUNTS
Table 18 (i) (N= 114)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent
? 2
FAIL GRADE 1/A GRADE 2/B GRADE 3/C 0.036
Distinction 3 (7) 25 (58.1) 13 (30.2) 2 (4.7)
Credit 2 (10) 11 (55) 6 (30) 1 (5.0)
Pass 4 (8.7) 10 (21.7) 29 (63.0) 3 (6.3)
Fail 1 (10) 2 (4.2) 1 (2.0) 1 (14.3)
P<0.05
Based on table 18 (i), the results indicate that there is a relationship between academic performance and having passed Principles of Accounts at the CXC/GCE level (? 2(2) = 0.036, p<0.05). The results indicate that there is a significant relationship between the two variables previously mentioned. Of the students who had attained distinctions in the Advanced level accounting tests over the last six months, 58.1 percent of them had attained a grade 1/A in Principles of Accounts (POA) at the Ordinary level while 30.2 percent had received grade 2/B in comparison to 4.7 percent who had got grade 3/C and only 7 percent of them having failed at the prerequisite level. Of those whose academic performance was a credit over the same period, 55.0 percent of them had attained a grade 1/A in Principles of Accounts (POA) at the Ordinary level while 30.0 percent had received grade 2/B in comparison to 5.0 percent who had got grade 3/C and only 10 percent of them who having failed at the prerequisite level. Of those whose academic performance was a pass over the same period, 21.7 percent of them had attained a grade 1/A in Principles of Accounts (POA) at the Ordinary level while 63.0 percent had received grade 2/B in comparison to 6.3 percent who had got grade 3/C and only 8.7 percent of them who having failed at the prerequisite level. Of those whose academic performance was a failing grade over the same period, 4.2 percent of them had attained a grade 1/A in Principles of Accounts (POA) at the Ordinary level while 2.0 percent had received grade 2/B in comparison to 14.3 percent who had got grade 3/C and in comparison to only 10.0 percent of them who having failed at the prerequisite level. In regards to the coefficient of determination, 13.61 percent of the proportion of variation in academic performance was explained by having passed POA at the Ordinary level. The strength of the relationship is moderate (cc = .4).
Table 18 (ii) presents the results of the Chi-Square analysis examining the relationship between the academic performances and past success in POA, controlled for gender.
Table 18 (ii) Relationship between academic performance and POA among A’ Level accounting students, controlled for gender
Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent
? 2
Performance FAIL GRADE 1/A GRADE 2/B GRADE3/C Pvalue
Distinction Male - 1
- (5.9%)
Female - 0
(0.0%) Male - 12
- (70.6%)
Female - 26
(100%) Male - 4
- (23.5%)
Female - 0
(0.0%) Male - 0
(0.0%)
Female - 0
(0.0%) 0..205
0.092
Credit Male - 0
- (0.0%)
Female - 2
(14.3%) Male - 5
- (83.3%)
Female - 6
(42.9%) Male - 1
- (16.7%)
Female - 5
(35.7%) Male - 0
(0.0%)
Female - 1
(7.1%) 0.205
0.092
Pass Male - 4
- (20.0%)
Female - 1
(0.0%) Male - 5
- (25.0%)
Female - 5
(19.3%) Male - 10
- (50.0%)
Female - 19
(73.1.0%) Male - 1
(7.1%)
Female - 2
(7.7%) 0.205
0.092
Fail Male - 1
- (0.0%)
Female - 1
(25.0%) Male - 1
- (100%)
Female-1 (25.0%) Male - 0
(0.0%)
Female - 1
(25.0%) Male - 0
(0.0%)
Female - 1
(25.0%) 0.205
0.092
Pvalue < 0.05
Although there is a statistical significant relationship between academic performance and past performance in POA at the Ordinary level, when controlled for gender, there was no statistical relationship.
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND SELF CONCEPT
Table 19 (N= 112)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent
? 2
Low Moderate High 0.390
Distinction 21 14 9
Credit 13 5 2
Pass 19 11 3
Fail 3 0 2-
P>0.05
Based on table 19 above, the results indicate that there is no relationship between academic performance and ones self concept (? 2(2) = 0.390, p>0.05).
By using Spearman’s correlation, at the two-tailed level, the P (value) = 0.541 which represents no correlation between ones concept of self and academic performance.
Even when the researcher looked at self concept as being positive or negative, there was no statistical significance between it and academic performance. The ? 2 (2) = 0.828
BIVARIATE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE AND DIETARY REQUIREMENTS
Table 20 (N=116)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent Number and
Percent ? 2
Pvalue
Poor Moderate Good Excellent 0.970
Distinction 19 25 NA NA
Credit 9 11 NA NA
Pass 22 24 NA NA
Fail 3 3 NA NA
P>0.05
From table 20 above, the results indicate no relationship between dietary requirements and academic performance (? 2(2) = 0.970, p>0.05).
SUMMARY OF TABLES
TABLE 21
VARIABLES – COUNT (? 2(2)
Rejected Null Hypotheses:
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and MATERIAL RESOURCES 114 (0.011)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and EATING BREAKFAST 114 (0.045)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and PAST SUCCESS IN CXC/GCE POA 114 (0.036)
COMPARATIVE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
and INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES 103 (0.054)
Fail to reject Null hypotheses (i.e. Ho):
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and dietary requirements 116 (0.970)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and Self concept 112 (0.390)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and Mathematics 112 (0.560)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and English Language 112 (0.539)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and Physical Illness 116 (0.817)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and Mental Illness 116 (0.
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and Migraine 116 (0.868)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and Class Attendance 106 (0.697)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and Physical Exercise 110 (0.233)
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE and Subjective Social Class 108 (0.790)
COMPARATIVE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
and Subjective Social Class 99 (0.790)
5
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In Jamaica, the low academic performances in Advanced Level Accounting over the past seventeen (17) years (see Appendix II, Table 1) have indicated a need for concern. In that, it is on one occasion that the success rate was approximately 50 percent and that was in 1986. What is worrying about that? Answer – if Jamaica is one of the countries in the Third World and the Western Hemisphere with the highest failure rate in the Principles of Accounts Examination at the General Certificate of Education Advanced Level (Peter Abbot, 1993), then we are not doing something that our counterparts have been doing which we should have had done some time ago. In order that we comprehend the complexities of the matter, this can only be understood within the context of a research that analyze social factors; instructional resources and physical issues on the, pre-University, programme.
The generally low academic performances by the Jamaican candidates are not comparable to the spent economic costs to date. Does this only affect Advanced level accounting that is offered by the University of Cambridge? Answer - the problem is not only limited to this subject; as mathematics and economics to name a few courses have a similar failure rate. As it relates specifically to economics at the Advanced level, the failure rate is higher than that of economics. As it relates to Advanced level accounting, the trend here appears irreversibility and it is this fact that cannot be encouraged which is why this research will provide the materialist foundation for the beginning of the transformation.
Although past literature has shown that nutrition (i.e. proper diet) positively influences academic performance, this research has proven the contrary. Meaning that the ? 2 of 0.970 clearly shows that there is no significant relationship between diet and academic performance. The researcher believes this may be explained by the fact that approximately 100 percent of the interviewees of this research were consuming snacks that provides carbohydrate. Note that carbohydrates provide energy although this does not comprise all the nutrients it provides vital value upon which the brain relies for functioning. Hence, it is not so much so that diet is solely important but that foods are eaten that allows the brain to operation to which the students directly relies. The researcher will now analyze diet from the perspective of this research.
Approximately 50 (i.e. 48.5%) percent of the students who will be writing the examination were not having a balance diet as defined by the Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute on the University of the West Indies’ Mona Campus, Kingston, Jamaica. This matter must have some bearing on students’ energy levels and by extension influence future degree of concentration. Although dietary requirements are not correlated to academic performances in this research, the researcher believes that insufficient nutrients from foods are both vital to energy levels of students and the development of the brain which must have some bearing on students concentration at school. Hence, which in the researcher’s opinion helps to explain why the eating of breakfast shows a significant relationship on changes in academic performance (see table 10 i). The eating of breakfast speaks to the foods’ nutrients effectiveness on academic performance. That is, the brain requires energy that is derived from foods. The researcher believes that an individual having slept for approximately eight (8) hours the night before, a day at school with or without food (i.e. dinner or brunch), is now hunger and so the brain is starved of vital energy upon which it relies on for functioning. This explains why the eating of breakfast influences academic performance. The United States DHSS concurred with a research that disproves the null hypothesis. Meaning, the eating of breakfast provides the brain with needed nutrients for effective operation.
Continuing, based on past findings as are presented in this literature review from at least two (2) Universities in the United States; those students who were consuming breakfast showed an increase in academic performance in comparison to those who were not having the same. This research concurred with the literature as 10.18 percent of the proportion of variation in academic performance was explained by consuming breakfast. Although the strength of the relationship is weak (i.e. cc = 0.319), it indicates a matter that cannot go unnoticed as this will negatively influences the outcomes of the present Advanced level accounting students on their examination come May/June 2004 or 2005 if this matter is not addressed by either the schools or parents.
As it relates to material resources (i.e. instructional materials), the findings did agree with the general hypothesis that there is a relationship between availability of resources materials and academic performance. The results were not surprising, as the literature had pointed to a definite significant relationship between resources and academic performance. Based on the literature, which was equally supported by the findings in this survey, unless someone has the materials to prepare him/her for a particular discipline then he/she will not be able to successful meet the standards or even understand the prerequisites for the particular task to be performed despite the candidates innate capabilities and-or ability. Instructional resources explained approximately 20 percent of the proportion of variation in academic performance. With some 7.7 percent of students having only a few instructional resources and an alarming 30.8 percent with a moderate number of instructional resources, then we can expect a continuation of the low performance as instructional resources is a key ingredient to performance. The strength of the relationship is moderate (cc = .442), and of itself adds even more importance to the urgency to which the low and moderate availability of instructional resources must be addressed in order to transform the future failure rate at the Advanced level in particular to accounting and should also be applied to other subject areas.
Interestingly, a twist in relationship turned up between instructional resources and academic performance when controlled for gender. Even though a significant relationship was already established between the variables, an irony was observed. In that, the relationship between academic performance and instructional resources revealed that among females there was no relationship between the variables (P=0.060) but among the males a significant relationship exists (P=0.0000) and the strength was stronger (cc=0.62). The coefficient of determination, that explains the proportion of variation of the academic performance among males, was 38.56 percent.
Some of the findings did not agree with the general hypotheses of the research for example physical exercises; past performance in Mathematics, English language; class attendance, subjective social class and health, and their influence on academic performance. The results were not surprising, as the researcher passed Advanced level accounting before passing English Language, Mathematics, without exercising, and having not attending classes for one term due to illness.
The researcher is typical as 16.2 percent of present A’ Level accounting students had failed Mathematics and 6.1 percent English Language. One writer (Wright) claimed that “basic mathematics” is needed which implies not a passing grade in CXC mathematics. David Hergreaves ascribes a relationship between self-concept and academic performance but this research has proved otherwise. Approximately 81 percent of this survey was from the middle class with 15 percent being in the lower class; if this research typifies the Jamaican experience over the years then the failure rate in Advanced level accounting should not have been this high. This research showed that no significant relationship exists between social class (i.e. subjective) and academic performance. Even when Spearman’s correlation was used, no correlation was reported between the same variables previously mentioned.
On the issue of class attendance, there was no significant relationship between this variable and performance. The Chi-square value for the previously mentioned variables is 0.697. This appears absurd as not attending classes in and of itself must influence knowledge level, skills, and competence of the students in a course that is difficult but this research proved otherwise. However, there is a correlation between a student’s comparative performance and class attendance. Meaning, those students who were performance better this term in comparison to last term concurred that this was as related to class attendance. Spearman’s correlation revealed that there is a very weak inverse correlation between comparative academic performance and class attendance.
One developmental researcher, Freeman, wrote that there is a significant relationship between social and economic factors and academic performance. Although this is general, the researcher agrees in part, as information presented early clearly indicates that there is no relationship between social factors such as class attendance, subjective social class and self-concept; but where this research agrees is that instructional resources that are social factors do influence academic performance. In addition, this research agrees in part to economic influences on academic performance as with having economic resources, students will be unable to but note major of the A ‘Level accounting students are from the middle class.
On another matter, the researcher is putting forward the position that the post-Caribbean Examination Council candidates would have been introduced to study skills, basic mathematics and would have already attained a particular degree of self discipline so much so that they would driven by internal desire to excel and not merely class attendance, self concept and physical exercise. As such, they are possibly highly motivated to study despite not having attended classes on a regular basis, not exercising, not being healthy or not being of a particular social class. This research concurred with the previously mentioned arguments where the findings revealed that there was no statistical significance between academic performance and health, physical exercise, class attendance or even subjective social class. The irony here lies in no significance between class attendance and academic performance although there is a significant relationship between instructional resources and academic performance. In that, how will the students acquire the need skills, knowledge, competencies, techniques and understanding of the materials without the assistance of instructors?
Even though a significant relationship was established between having passed POA at the Ordinary level and academic performance, there was no relationship between compared academic performance (i.e. a comparison of Christmas term’s scores and Easter term’s scores) and having passed accounts at Ordinary level. That is, the knowledge of POA at the Ordinary level is required to understand the concept in A’ Level but just by passing the prerequisite will not guarantee any success in the former level.
The researcher was startled with the fact that there was no relationship between academic performance and subjective social class. In that, how will the lower class students be able to afford sufficient instructional resources to which shows a relationship with academic performance. The Zimmer who claims that many of those people of lowered academic performance often times usually drop out of school before graduation supported this finding. Hence, the researcher is beginning to grasp the difference between the two issue previously mentioned, in that if a lower class student remains in school the results can be the same as that of the other social classes.
Not all the above findings were consistent with the literature, and so some of the researcher’s hypotheses were reject while some and add potency to the understanding of the problem of the low academic performance at Advanced level accounting.
LIMITATIONS
COST CONSTRAINT
This constraint (limitation) hampered an extensive coverage of the research of the entire island. As such, the researcher was only able to select a few schools within urban Kingston and St. Andrew. Of the sample frame of schools selected, the researcher was only able to choose ten (10) that cannot constitute even a generalization of the community much less Jamaica.
TIME CONSTRAINT
Although this research is in assumption of fundamental importance the process had to be completed in only three months. As such, other influential factors were not examined in this study. In that, because of the sensitivity of the topic if more time was available, the matter could have been thoroughly investigated. By not having adequate time for even the socialization process between the researcher and the respondents, many of the participants will not certain of our objective and so the researcher felt that he could have unearth much more that was collected within the time available. Time unavailability restricts the use of all forty (40) questions on the designed instrument.
GENDER
With wanting a sample size in excess of 120 (one hundred and twenty) students, and knowing this fact with the reality that the educational institutions is largely dominated by females; the researcher was forces to accept more males than female. As such, the responses will be skewed in favour of the women.
AVAILABILITY OF SECONDARY DATA CONSTRAINT
The literature (past reviews) did not provide any direct secondary studies on Jamaica. As such, the researcher did not have past findings in Jamaica to provide a materialist foundation on which to build or even guide our investigation.
LOCALITY CONSTRAINT
The study was on urban Kingston and St. Andrew. Further, the social settings of urban Kingston and St. Andrew are not necessarily typical of rural Jamaica and so generalizations are not appropriate about Jamaica.
RECOMMENDATION
Based on data gathered in this survey, there is a significant relationship between academic performance and eating breakfast. It should be noted that, close to 50 percent of those interviewed were not having something to eat in the mornings. Hence, the first recommendation is for schools to introduce a breakfast programme. In order that we improve students’ successes, in the Advanced level, examination given that there is a positive relationship between consuming breakfasts and performing better on tests; eating breakfast must be encouraged by schools by introducing and encouraging Sixth former to participate in such a programme. Continuing with this position, the researcher is recommending that schools through the schools’ nurses make the Sixth former cognizant of the influence and impact of having breakfast.
As it relates to policies, this issue must be a concern to all policy makers and administrators within in Jamaica, as the University of the West Indies relies directly on the Advanced level programme and so this matter must be of fundamental concern to all. As such, any further deterioration in the quality of the Advanced level programme or continuation for that matter will significantly influence the quality of the labour force in the future.
Although there is no relationship between the quality of foods consumed (i.e. a balance diet according to the Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute) and academic performance, students should be taught the importance of healthy eating and it influence. As such, a dietary package must be the forefront of any breakfast programme that is offered to students.
The availability of resource materials given that there is a relationship between this variable and academic performance must be of concern to all schools. The researcher is recommending that the low availability of materials be addressed with urgency. Given that approximately eighty (80) percent of the sample indicated that they owned at most two (2) texts, the researcher sees the continuation of the low academic performance of the Advanced level accounting continuing come June/May of 2004 but came be altered before 2005.
Those candidates who will be writing the A’ Level examination come May/June 2004 may not be helped by this finding, however, those who will be sitting the course come May/June 2005 must be help by making available to them more resource materials. By providing more resource, materials to our students that should include workshops address a significant aspect of this phenomenon. The researcher is recommending that we source instructional resources in the form of examiners, private Chartered Accountants, and additional resource materials that will reverse the past reality.
The researcher is recommending that the Advanced level accounting teachers, be sent on specialized training course specifically to address the low performance of their students. Continuing, the researcher is recommending that any teacher who will be employed in the Advanced Level accounting programme be qualified in accounting. Meaning no competently qualified accounting individuals should be asked to teach the programme.
The researcher recommends that other researchers survey psychological factors; and social facts such as sexual involvement, background and home setting on academic performance of the same A’ Level accounting students.
LIMITATIONS
COST CONSTRAINT
This constraint may thwart an extensive coverage of the research of the entire island.
TIME CONSTRAINT
Although this research is of paramount importance to the understanding of students’ underperformance in Advanced Level Accounts, the process will have to be completed in only four months, which translates to only a semester. As a result of this time constraint other variables which are influential will be not investigated. The fact that the location of the researcher (Kingston) is not in close proximity to some of the schools in the rural areas that are involved in the study, also presents a formidable challenge in collecting the data within the slated time.
AVAILABILITY OF SECONDARY DATA CONSTRAINT
There is a void in the literature concerning secondary studies in Jamaica. No previous studies have been done in an area that the research is attempting to elucidate. This research proposal therefore embarks on a systematic analysis of secondary schools in this forum. Subsequently no past findings were available to provide a materialist foundation on which to build or even guide his investigation.
REFERENCES
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Bloom, Benjamin. 1979. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Book 1, Cognitive Domain.
Brown, L. 1961. Communicating Facts and Ideas in Business. Prentice-Hall Inc. N.J.
California Department of Education. 2002. Physical Fitness Results for California’s Students. Retrieved January 9, 2004 from http://www..cde.ca.gov/gov/statestests/pe/pe.html.
Cambridge University. 1991. Cambridge Examination Reports. Cambridge University Press.
Caribbean School of Education U.W.I. 1978. Journal of Education, Volume 5, Number 3.
Caribbean School of Education U.W.I. 1981. Journal of Education, Volume 8, Number 2.
Caribbean School of Education U.W.I. 1983. Journal of Education, Volume 8, Number 2.
Dalzell-Ward, A. 1974. A textbook of Health Education. Tavistock Publications Limited. 11 New Fetter Lane, London. EC 4P 4EE.
Draper, Harold H. 1990. Advances in Nutritional Research, Volume 8. University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Plenum Press New York.
Freeman, Joan. 1993. Quality Basic Education: The Development of Competence.
Haralambos, M and Holborn, M. 1996. Sociology Themes and Perspectives. Collin Education: An imprint of Harper Collin Publisher, Fourth Edition.
Harrison, J. 1974. Teaching Office Practice. The Gresham Press, Old Working, Surrey, England.
Irving, Ann. 1985. Starting to Teach Study Skills.
Lindgren, H. C. 1973. An Introduction to Social Psychology. 2nd Edition, Wiley and Son International.
Marx. E, Wooley, S, & Northrop, D. (Eds). 1998. Health is Academic: A Guide to Coordinated School Health Programs. Williston, VT: Teachers College Press. Health is Academic: Creating Coordinated School Health Programs. Retrieved March 1, 2004, http://www.edc.org/HealthAcademicc.
O’Donnell, Mike (1997). Introduction to Sociology. 4Th Edition. Thomas Nelson and sons Ltd. Nelson House, Mayfield Road, Walton-on-Thomas, Surrey KT12 5PL. U.K.
Ornstein, Robert. 1988. Psychology, the Study of Human Experience.
Powell, C.A. et al. Nutrition and Education: A Randomized Trial of the Effects of Nutrition in Rural Primary School Children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68(4) 873-79.
Solso, Robert L. 1988. Cognitive Psychology. Second Edition, Allyn and Bacan Inc. A Division of Simon and Schuster, 7 Well Avenue, Newton, Massachusetts, 02159.
Public Policy Center, University of Iowa. 2001. hawk-i: Impact on Access and Health Status. Retrieved February, 2004, from http://health.public-policy-center.uiowa.edu/hawk-i.
Schneider, Robert E. 1958. Methods and Materials of Health Education. W. B. Saunders Company. Philadelphia, United States.
Symons, Cynthia. 1997. Bridging Student Health Risks and Academic Achievement through Comprehensive School Health Programs. Journal of School Health, vol. 224 (August 1997).
Statistical Institute of Jamaica. 1982 – 1992. Statistical Abstracts. Statistical Institute of Jamaica. 32 Swallowfield Avenue, Kingston 5.
Tuckman, B. W. 1975. Measuring Educational Outcomes: Fundamentals of Testing. Harcount Brace, Jovanovich Inc.
Tufts University. 1998. The Link between Nutrition and Cognitive Development in Children. Poverty and Nutrition Policy, Center on Hunger, Tufts University.
World Health Organization (WHO) and Education International. 2002. Promoting Health in Schools Worldwide. Retrieved January 30, 2004, from http://www.who.org.
Dear students,
This survey, research, is an investigation into the influence of physical, social factors and instructional resources on the academic performances of students who will be writing the Advanced Level Accounting Examination in May/June 2005. As such, your response is sought in understanding those phenomena previously mentioned.
Your assistance is sought in answering this questionnaire.
Please note that your name is not needed for this survey and so there is no need to include it on this paper.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Personal data
Q1. What is your gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]
Q2. What was your age at last birthday (specify):______________________________
Q3.1 Where do you reside (specify): _______________________________________
Q3.2 In response to Q3.1, is your residence (i.e. home)?
Owned by family [ ]
Rented by family [ ]
Leased by family [ ]
Unsure [ ]
Other, specify: ________________________________________
Q4. What is the highest level of education that your parent(s)/guardian(s) has/have completed?
Primary/All Age [ ]
Junior High [ ]
Secondary/High [ ]
Technical High [ ]
Vocational [ ]
Tertiary [ ]
None [ ]
Q5.1 I believe that my mother and-or father or guardian’s is in the:
Lower class [ ]
Middle class [ ]
Upper class [ ]
Not sure [ ]
Q5.2 Generally, who do you reside with?
Mother, only [ ]
Father, only [ ]
Mother and Father [ ]
Other [ ]
Q6.1 Are you affected by any of the following illnesses?
________ Migraine ________ asthma
________ Arthritis ________ heart disease
________ Psychosis ________ drug addiction
________ Anxiety ________ depression
________ Sickle cell ________ hypertension
________ Diabetes ________fit (epilepsy)
________ None ________ numbness of the hand(s)
Other (specify): ____________________________________________________
If your response to Q6.1 is none, skip to Q8.
Q6.2 If you answer to Q6.1 is YES, how often in the last three (3) months?
_________ Always (7-12 weeks)
_________ Sometimes (3-6 weeks)
_________ Occasionally (1-2 weeks)
_________ Rarely (0 to <1 week)
_________ Never (0 week)
Q6.3 If you answer to Q6.1 is YES, how often in the last six (6) months?
_________ Always (4-6 months)
_________ Sometimes (2-3 months)
_________ Occasionally (1 month)
_________ Rarely (0 to <4 weeks)
_________ Never (0 week)
Q7.1 Are any of your close family member(s) affected by a major illness?
Yes [ ] No [ ] Not sure [ ]
Q7.3 If your response to Q7.1 is Yes, are you emotionally close to this person?
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
Not really [ ]
Q7.4 If your response to Q7.1 is Yes, how frequently in the last three (3) months?
Always (11/2 - 3months) [ ]
Sometimes (< 3 weeks but > 5weeks) [ ]
Unsure [ ]
Occasionally (less than two weeks) [ ]
Never [ ]
QUALIFICATION
Q8.1 What were your grades in any of the following course(s), specify: tick your response
Subject CXC -General Grade O’Level Grade A/O Grade
English
Language N/A N/A
English
Literature N/A N/A
Mathematics
General Paper/Communication Studies
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Principles of
Accounts
N/A
N/A
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCES
Q8.2 What are your last two (2) tests scores over the past six (6) months in Advanced Level
Accounting?
(Specify)___________________________________________________________
Q8.3 What are your last two (2) scores on assignments, in A’ Level Accounting, over the past six (6) months?
(Specify) ___________________________________________________________
Q8.4 What is your lowest score on an Advanced Level Accounting test in the last three (3)
months? Specify ____________________________________________________________
Q8.5 How is your academic performance in A’ Level Accounting this term in comparison to
last term?
Better [ ]
Same [ ]
Worse [ ]
CLASS ATTENDANCE
Use the scale to answer from Q9. to Q19; (circle response)
1. strongly disagree
2. disagree
3. Neutral
4. agree
5. strongly agree
SD D N A SA
Q9. I enjoy attending A’ Level Accounting classes 1 2 3 4 5
Q10 A’ Level Accounting classes are boring so why
attend as this will destroy my psyche for the
other classes 1 2 3 4 5
Q11 My Accounts teacher knows nothing so I do
not attend 1 2 3 4 5
Q12 I attend all the A’ Level Accounts classes in
the past because the teacher uses techniques
that allow us to grasp the principles of the
subject matter 1 2 3 4 5
Q14 Whenever its time for A’ Level Accounts classes
I become nauseous so I go home 1 2 3 4 5
Q15 I wished all the other disciplines, courses, were
taught like that of the accounts 1 2 3 4 5
Q16 I oftentimes wished the A’ Level Accounts
classes never end 1 2 3 4 5
Q17 My A’ Level Accounts teacher has impacted
positively on my self concept 1 2 3 4 5
Q18 The physical layout of the classroom
in which A’ Level Accounts is taught turns
me off, so I do not attend 1 2 3 4 5
Q19 I will not waste precious time attending
A’ Level Accounts classes, when I can spend
this time on other subject(s) 1 2 3 4 5
DIETARY EDUCATION:-
Q20.1 How often do you consume the following per week? Tick your choices
Frequency Breakfast Lunch Dinner
Seven times
Six times
Five times
Four times
Three times
Two times
One time
Never
Q20.2 What do you normally consume each day,
tick your choices:
ITEM(S)
Pineapple/orange/
banana
Apple/beat root/
Grape
Carrot
Cabbage/water
Sweet sop/soar sop
Turnip/salad/tomatoes
String beans/string peas/ green peas/broad beans/gongo - PEAS
Peanuts/cashew
Milk/eggs
Chicken and parts
Fish, other meats
Butter/margarine
Pear
Coconut
Ackee
Rice/oats
Flour/ wheat bread/
wheat biscuits
Cornmeal/wheat/corn
Yams
Green bananas
Irish/sweet potatoes
Dasheen/cocoa
SNACKS
INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES
Use the scale to answer from Q21. to Q31.2, (circle your response)
1 strongly disagree
2 disagree
3 unsure
4 agree
5 strongly agree
SD D N A SA
Q21. I will not buy an
A’ Level Accounting textbooks 1 2 3 4 5
Q22 I have a minimum of two (2) of the prescribed reading
materials in Accountings 1 2 3 4 5
Q23 I am very aware of the required texts needed
for the examination in Accounting but I have none 1 2 3 4 5
Q24 I visit the library at least once a week in order
to borrow resource materials in Accounting 1 2 3 4 5
Q25 The libraries provide pertinent
textbooks and journal in Accounting 1 2 3 4 5
that I use in my preparation of the subject
Q26 My teacher provides little notes on each topic
which cannot be used to problem-solve
examinations questions 1 2 3 4 5
Q27 I have Examiners’ Reports
on Advanced level accounting 1 2 3 4 5
Q28 I have never read an Examiners’ Report on
Advanced Level Accounting 1 2 3 4 5
Q29.1 Generally, I revise my notes daily 1 2 3 4 5
Q29.2 I have a copy of the Advanced Level Accounting
Syllabus 1 2 3 4 5
Q29.3 In the last six (6) months, I have not read the
Advanced Level Accounting Syllabus 1 2 3 4 5
Q30 Generally, my teacher provides all the solutions
to practiced papers and other questions solved in class 1 2 3 4 5
Q30.1 Generally, I frequently use my textbooks
in problem-solving questions 1 2 3 4 5
Q30.2 I am not comfortable using a calculator 1 2 3 4 5
SELF CONCEPT
Use the scale to answer from Q31.1 through Q34.3; (circle response)
1 strongly disagree
2. disagree
3. unsure
4. agree
5. strongly agree
SD D N A SA
Q31. I am proud of my present body weight 1 2 3 4 5
Q32 I am glad to know I look good 1 2 3 4 5
Q33 I would like to take plastic surgery to alter
a few aspects of by body 1 2 3 4 5
Q34.1 I feel less than equal to other persons of my age 1 2 3 4 5
Q34.2 I am always upset at the accomplishment
of others 1 2 3 4 5
Q34.3 I am never angry in being around someone who
speaks highly of himself/herself 1 2 3 4 5
PHYSICAL EXERCISE
Use the scale to answer from Q35 through Q40 (circle response)
1 strongly disagree
2 disagree
3 unsure
4 agree
5 strongly agree
SD D N A SA
Q35. I enjoy working out (i.e. physical exercise)
at least once per week 1 2 3 4 5
Q36 I do not understand why someone would
want to become sweaty by exercising 1 2 3 4 5
Q37 I just enjoy being physically active 1 2 3 4 5
Q38 I do not see the importance of participating
in any form of physical exercise, as other
activities appear more important 1 2 3 4 5
Q39 Physical exercising is a crucial aspect of my
health programme 1 2 3 4 5
Q40 Although physical exercise is good for the
Human body, I do not participate because
On completion I want to sleep 1 2 3 4 5
“Now that we have come to the end of this exercise, I would like to expend my deepest appreciation for your co-operation and involvement in this data gathering process – THANK YOU! “
Table 1
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION SYNDICATE
ADVANCED LEVEL ACCOUNTING (JUNE) – Entries and Percentage Passes of Jamaican candidates
YEAR
ENTRIES
NO. SAT EXAM.
% PASS
1982 133 133 4.5
1983 313 313 36.8
1984 459 459 28.3
1985 628 628 43.5
1986 679 679 48.5
1987 819 819 37.7
1988 934 607 43.1
1989 1034 763 6.9
1990 1340 4.9
1991 1339 1144 4.0
1992 1187 38.7
1993 1227 1062 27.8
1994 1587 23.6
1995 1271 31.4
1996 1603 1336 38.7
1997 1689 1387 34.1
1998 1725 * 29.6
1999 * * *
2000 473 230 48.6
2001 573 190 33.*
2002 * * *
SOURCE: i. STATISTICAL YEARBOOK OF JAMAICA, 1990 – 1999
ii. STATISTICAL ABSTRACT (PUBLICATIONS 1982 – 1992)
* Missing figures
** Public school only and for the private schools it was (336 candidates; pass rate 14.9%)
Table 2
C.X.C PRINCIPLES OF ACCOUNTS (JUNE – GENERAL PROFICIENCY) Results – Entries and Percentage Passes of Jamaican candidates
YEAR
ENTRIES
% PASS
1982 35 65.71
1983 39 58.97
1984 92 57.61
1985 116 75.86
1986 1544 68.8
1987 1372 70.8
1988 1768 50.1
1989 1873 56.0
1990 8213 28.4
1991 7161 29.4
1992 6909 41.6
1993 7060 43.1
1994 7336 53.3
1995 7289 42.7
1996 7623 57.5
1997 12808 71.0
1998 8450 47.0
1999 6892 78.3
2000 6588 76.2
2001 6305 85.5
2002 6416 87.2
2003 6262 84.0
SOURCE: i. STATISTICAL YEARBOOK OF JAMAICA, 1990 – 1999
ii. STATISTICAL ABSTRACT (PUBLICATIONS 1982 – 1998: 52, 54, 60, 63)
iii. Jamaica Education Statistics, 1999 – 2000; 2000/2001
Table 3
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION SYNDICATE
ADVANCED LEVEL ACCOUNTING (JUNE) – Entries and Percentage Passes of Trinidad and Tobago candidates
YEAR
ENTRIES
NO. SAT EXAM.
PERCENTAGE PASS
1982
1983
1984
1985 116 116 68.9
1986 182 182 64.8
1987 192 192 67.7
1988 282 282 62.4
1989 309 309 57.9
SOURCE i. STATISTICAL ABSTRACT (PUBLICATIONS 1986 – 1999)