LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
David Hargreaves (Haralambos 1997, 5:231) states that, “many schools fail to produce a sense of dignity of working-class. If pupils fail to achieve individual success in competitive exams they will tend to rebel and fail to develop a sense of belonging within the school.” The researcher concurs with that conclusion within the Jamaican experience; students who are the most indisciplined oftentimes are within the group of poor academic achievers (i.e. failure at examinations). Haralambos writing revealed that, “To acquire dignity a person must achieve a sense of competence, of making a contribution to, and of being valued by, the group to which he or she belongs.” Here Hergreaves’s positions reflect the structure of the world as it relates to accomplishment, being successes on a competitive examination in order to establish competence. Meaning that, there is much stress levied on the individual to compete on an examination in order to establish worth, mastery and that of being valued by society. This explains why sociologists of the modern school including Hargreaves believed that the individual should have some sense of freedom to pursue disciplines of his/her interest or talent and not be totally dictated to by the social institution – the school. That is, the education system is rigidly structured to measure students’ performance in order to allocate human resources within the role-structure of adult society.
“Conformity and obedience therefore bring their own rewards. Finally, students emerge from the educational system with a variety of qualifications that they and others believe have provided them with the training, skills and competence for particular occupations. Illich rejects this belief. He argues that ‘The pupil is schooled to confuse teaching with learning, grade advancement with education, a diploma with competence,” Haralambos (1997:5,236) said. The researcher concurs with Haralambos’ views. The present ‘Westernized’ model is designed around qualification, success, achievement and competence as measured by a competitive examination that cannot be a true reflection of individuals’ depth of knowledge, skill base or even mastery in a task.
The Journal of Education (1981) posited that performance might be seen as an index of the candidates’ ability and motivation. In that, the success of teaching is in engaging in giving direction, as that fact is observed as affecting performance.
The Journal of Education (op cit) further commented that the Jamaican economy relies heavily on graduate output of the University of the West Indies to supply the needed expertise in technological, commercial and professional fields. In turn, the University of the West Indies depends on the Sixth Forms of Secondary High Schools (grammar school) to supply students capable of acquiring a particular expertise. Over the past few years however, wastage at the Sixth Form level in Jamaican Grammar schools has led to setting up of a working party by the Jamaican government to consider post Ordinary Level Education.
In Jamaica, an investment in Sixth Form Education at the Secondary level requires thorough investigation if the overall outcome continues to be between 4.0 and 45.8 percent success rate in the Cambridge Advanced Level Accounting Examination. Students who participate in the Sixth Form programme of study are usually University aspirants and represent meritocratic elite in the Jamaican Educational system. This small and selected group of young adults has elected to pursue this course of study after attaining a minimum of grade III or a grade C at the CXC/Ordinary Level examination (since, 1998).
The performance of Advanced Level candidates (post Caribbean Examination Council) has been deteriorating disappointingly (see Appendix II). The Journal (op cit) noted that the continuing wastage at the Sixth Form Level demands that improvement in the Advanced Level Achievement of Jamaican Students be treated as a priority. As such, consideration and speedy implementation of some or all of the recommendations offered by the Working Party provide a starting point on which to develop those improvements best able to assist in equipping Sixth Formers for providing Jamaica with the technological, commercial and professional skills vital to the Nation’s Economic, political, social and psychological development.
You may want to argue that the Journal of Education was published in 1981, so looked at issues of that period and not beyond to 2004. The issue today is, have systems been implemented to curtail those matters that were place in the Journal of Education in 1981. If not, the argument still holds true as the situation is the same as before the research was done by that agency. Now, you will see that such performance has continued to occur, when Lloyd Brown (1989) posited that, the results of the Advanced Level Examinations in 1988 in Jamaica could hardly be encouraging to the child going into Sixth Form. Continuing, the statistics revealed that a candidate is highly likely to fail the examination (that is, 6/10 chance that s/he will fail the papers) Brown, 1989. The statistics on students’ successes showed that an individual chance of being successful in 2004 is 4/10. The worrying spiral downward trends in successes of candidates who have sat the examination are depressing to the eyes and the human capital development of this country. Because the failure rate is high or very high, thorough the history of the examination, the researcher have wonders whether the Parents and Children have been advised of the challenge of the Sixth Form Programme.
Pupils who leave for the Fifth Form Level of education where they have just completed the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) or Ordinary Level (O’Level) programme are experiencing severe problems at the lower Sixth Form Level (Brown, 1989). Based on Table II (see Appendix II), Brown’s findings are true as the facts from the A’ Level examination results clearly concurs with Brown. The researcher’s own experience at the Advanced levels affirms Brown’s postulations on the matters, as he believes that he got no prior preparation for this new mental rigour and depth of application. Hence, this still leaves unanswered “Are students being furnished with the relevant skills, knowledge and competencies for the Advanced Level examination?” If not, the inevitable occurs – frustration, inability to cope and ultimately failure on the path of many candidates. Brown states, “Having been fed a diet of dependency, the pupil approaches the Sixth Form programme in the same manner and s/he is really badly shaken when he/she realizes that he/she must use a different approach, if s/he is to achieve academic excellence”. This leaves yet another unanswered issue, the difference between the Ordinary and Advanced Level examination and the teachers understanding of the requirements of latter. What is the social reality and social meanings that are out there that explain the sub-performance of A’ Level candidates?
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
On the point of academic performance or excellence, Tuckman (1975) posited that, “performance is used to label the observable manifestation of knowledge, skills, concepts, and understanding and ideas”. Hence, what is happening to our students who have sat and will continue to write the Advanced level examinations? If performance is the accomplishment of set tasks in a course objective in order to meet the requirement of examination syllabus, what explains the difference between the high performance in O’ Level and A’ Level (see Appendix II). Thereby, performance is the application of a learning product that at the end of the process provides mastery.
The acquisition of particular grades on examinations indicate candidates ability, mastery of the content, skills in applying learned knowledge to particular situations. A student’s success is generally judged on examination performance. Success on examinations is a crucial indicator that a student has benefited from a course of study (Wiseman, 1961). Why? Fishman (1962) states that, “all British studies have relied on examination performance”. This reality provides the basis on which performance is measured by Western civilization.
However, Harrison (1974), a Jamaican, posited that although an examination is not a perfect measure of educational success of pupils, it is an important indicator in this country’s educational systems and such cannot be ignored. It should be noted that the British established the educational system in Jamaica and so one should understand why this position is widely accepted.
The researcher believes that authentic academic performance should involve an examination of the total person. Meaning the examination should cover individual’s academic ability, and skills in applying practical abilities.
SKILLS
Joan Freeman (1993) states that, “Good intellectual skills have to be learnt, although basic sensory awareness naturally is a normal condition”. Meaning, ones intellectual ability to cope with incoming information, store it in flexible category in the memory, retrieve it for application to different situations, and adopt new information, all have to be refined to reach levels of competence. This process needs directive teaching, such as in learning to distinguish between shapes, recognizing forms and estimating distances to mention a few skills. All the senses are teachable to develop them into intellectual skills.
It is through skills such as reading, and listening that an individual acquires information (Lindgren, 1976). The need for information about the world is a challenge that we can only meet by acquiring and using appropriate skills, and it is impossible to learn skills without using information. Wright (1987) agreed with Lindgren when he posited that, it is important for beginners in accounting to be accurate about facts and information concerning their tasks. Meaning, in being accurate about facts and information, reading skill is being utilized. Hence, is it that A’ Level candidates are faced with the challenge of substandard reading skills? This issue may be an undiscovered reality that could explain the performance of the Jamaican candidates who write the examination.
Accuracy is necessary for a business to stay in existence. It therefore means that, workers have to utilize as much skills as possible in this area. Meaning that ultimately to this end are the Sixth Form Students being prepared. By reading and listening, then the skill of comprehension will be improved. It can be noted that at the point where the students understand what is expected, then they will be ale to perform the tasks more competently. The ability to listen to instructions is an important factor to be considered. This will enable the students to produce accurate work and efficient work.
One will agree with Wright (op cit), when she states that, “penmanship is important.” If a person’s handwriting is not readable by others, then the information is of no use. While writing legibly, it should be with speed. This is because deadlines have to be met, and there are always other works to be done. In the speed of task, spelling should be accurate. Where there is inaccuracy, the information is sometimes misleading.
Accounting requires constant calculation of figures to aid the gathering of information. It is therefore, important for students to be able to use the skill of computation efficiently. As such, it is evident that students need to have the ability to do arithmetic. This is the key as students must be able to do basic mathematics to produce accurate information.
Communication is another extremely important skill that is required by students that need mentioning. In the Accounts Department, everyone will use accounting records; therefore, there is the need for an interactive communication system built between employees. This would therefore create an atmosphere in which the objectives of the firm can be achieved to which the Sixth Form Students are being prepared to work.
Freeman (op cit) postulated that, the processes of intellectual development are not confined to the simple acquisition of skills; each new skill adds to and changes what has already been tried out. Perception is learnt from experience and it affects reasoning: good reasoning based on mistaken perceptions will produce faulty conclusions. Good quality education is largely concerned with correcting misconception and by broadening a child’s view, in such a way that the individual can reach personal conclusions from what s/he has observed.
Freeman (op cit) argued that analytical skills are sometimes called successive progressing which uses information in a time sequence. Meaning that one thought must logically follow another. In that, each process is linked in the chain of reasoning being dependent on the last. This is demanded from Accounting Students.
In regards, numeric skills Freeman (op cit) posited that, new ideas are reshaping the teaching of numeric skills. The style of calculations that parents learnt as children has fallen into disuse because the focus has been redirected away from numbers and towards logical relationships and mathematical languages. Instead of doing arithmetic in school, children are now likely to measure rooms, desk, consider, classify distinguish, differentiate and compare many aspects of what they have discovered for themselves.
To support the above statement McNical’s (1979) view was that, in the performance of any skill, the skill the student is consciously or unconsciously, based his/her movements on acquired knowledge. If the learner does not know the relevant basic knowledge in certain areas, his/her performance will lack some of the characteristics of the skill expected. For example a worker who has to use tool(s) must be aware of the use of each piece of equipment so that he/she can choose the right one(s) for the Job; because if s/he uses the wrong tool(s) the results of the job could be an inferior product and “awkward” movement in trying to reach the prescribed goal.
On the issue of study skills, Ann Irving (1985) argued that, the teaching of study skills has become an important issue in Secondary Education. We would have noticed over the years that despite the methods and materials of the teaching/learning process, many pupils are still unable to improve their learning.
Irving (op cit) argued further that, pupils fail to put into practice the full range of skills and habits they possess. The emphasis on talk is made into the belief that pupils develop their ideas more quickly through talking that writing and that expression and organization of ideas in writing will best occur where there is some organization in the mind of the writer before writing begins.
On the matter of revision and examination preparation skills, Irving (op cit) argued that, before the examinations were to begin, pupils should be given lessons on how to prepare for their examinations. In particular, they should be taught how to write a revision plan. Once the plan had been written and corrected by the teachers, in the ensuring weeks time was spent advising pupils how to write revision notes, how to make the most of one’s memory and the importance of testing recall above all else.
Irving’s (op cit) view was that, the final week before the examination, the teachers should make the students aware of the problems that they are likely to encounter and how they might be overcome or at least reduced to proportions that are more manageable before the sitting of the examination.
KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge involves the recall of specifics and universals information, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting (Benjamin Bloom 1979). That is, for measurement purposes, the recall situation involves little more than bringing to mind the appropriate material. Although some alteration of the material may be required, this is a relatively minor part of the task. The knowledge objectives emphasize most of the psychological processes of remembering. Meaning, to use an analogy, if one thinks of the mind as a file cabinet, the problem in a knowledge test situation is that of finding the problem or task the appropriate signals, cues, and clues that will most effectively bring out the stored information.
The recall of specific and assailable bits of information is crucial for students on an examination (Bloom 1979). The emphasis here is on symbols with concrete referents. This material, which is at a very low level of abstraction, may be thought of as the element from which more complex and abstract forms of knowledge are built.
Knowledge of terminologies is crucial aspects of understanding the requirement of the preparation for an examination. Meaning that, referent to specific symbols must be used for interpretation of the examination papers. Bloom (op cit) added that, knowledge of dates, events, persons, places et cetera are important for the examination. These include very precise and specific information such as the specific date or exact magnitude of a phenomenon.
On the issue of principles and generalization, Bloom (op cit) revealed that, knowledge of particular abstractions summarize phenomena that are critical in the preparation process for the examination. These are abstractions which are of value in explaining, describing, predicting, or in determining the most appropriate and relevant action or direction to be taken.
The greater the knowledge bases of the reader/learner or student, the better the comprehension of textual materials. Meaning that, one way to account for this generalization is that knowledge can be viewed as an organized collection of information. New information as might be gathered through reading can be assimilated more thoroughly when existing cognitive structures and information already exist (Robert Solso 1988). Conversely, insufficient knowledge limits comprehension about the material as well as encodes the information being read.
COMPETENCIES
According to Joan Freeman (1993), “motivation always comes from the individual, although it results may be for the benefit of the community.” The tried and tested message to those who want to promote literacy in a community is that, if people are to participate, they must want it for themselves; they will neither learn nor maintain the skill if it does not fulfill what they feel they need. She classified three major reasons why people might want to aim for literacy:
“i. literacy strengthens people’s social position, increasing ability to receive information, while enabling them to contribute their own ideas;
ii. literacy provides hope of economic improvement, whether in finding employment or in running one’s own business more effectively;
iii. literacy provides access to information about gaining individual satisfaction: reading, moving about the country, writing one’s own name instead of a thumb print, mastering numeric, communication and analytical skills so as not to be cheating, knowing one’s own rights, and teaching others.”
Developmental Research findings are clear that cumulative social and economic influences strongly affect the individual’s competence and consequently his/her level of performance in the way it biases his/her expectations of life opportunities (Freeman 1993).
Freeman (op cit) revealed that, Formal Education should not be seen as the only route for developing the highest level of competency. If the skills and talents needed by society are limited to an elite, then, whatever way the elite is selected, there will inevitably be talented individuals whose potential contributions are not recognized and so are lost. Providing for individuals to develop their exceptional talents not only benefit each of them, but also is more than repaid to the society which has helped them in the development of their skills.
Another author Butler (1939) supported the views of Freeman when he posited that, the primary responsibility of instruction is to bring about the maximum degree of achievement in learning, ensuring maximum performance on the part of the teachers. To achieve this, Butler (op cit) argued that, competent teachers are necessary to attain this, and the teachers need to be properly trained and motivated in order to offer the students with the relevant competence for their examination.
The various studies forwarded have offered profound insights varied views, reasons and explanations for the existence of the low academic performance of candidates who have sat the Advanced Level accounting examination in Jamaica in respect to skills, knowledge and competence. The researcher, however, is convinced that social factors (i.e. class attendance, completion of assignment), psychological and environmental factors, and physical factors (diet, exercise, and health) are directly affecting the knowledge base, the skills level and competencies of students who will continue to write examinations in this society. As such, we must analyze and not neglect the significance of those factors contribution on the low academic performances of Jamaican students.
Are there any scientific research that shows the relationship between academic performance of students and improvements in class attendance and health? Answer – According to Kristina K. Rudiger (M.P.H., M.Ed.), in an article entitled School Health Programs and Academic Achievement , she wrote that “A study of 22,403 students participating in Iowa School-Based Youth Services Programs, with multiple services-including health services, documented students improved or maintained attendance and improved or maintained grade point average. These results were demonstrated repeatedly over 10 years.”
She revealed in other research that there is a positive relationship between class attendance, health and academic performance. She wrote that:
. California’s Healthy Start Support Services for Children. Schools and collaborative partners coordinated and integrated services-including health screening, counseling, dental, and vision care-across different child and family serving systems to make services more accessible at or near the school. An evaluation based on data collected found students academic achievement increased significantly. Test scores for schools in the lowest quartile improved substantially, reading scores for the lowest-performing elementary schools increased by 25 percent and math scores increased by 50 percent. Middle and high school students, most in need, improved their grade point average by 50 percent, adding 0.8 and 1.2 to their GPA.
. Florida’s Coordinated School Health Program (CSHP) Pilot Schools. Schools incorporated the eight CSHP components into their activities to enhance student health and promote the achievement of State Standards. Following the implementation of CSHP, two middle schools reported their Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test math scores improved by an average of 11.5 percent and reading scores by an average of 15 percent. School attendance also increased at each school.
. Physical Fitness. Schools offering intensive physical fitness programs found positive effects on academic achievement even when time for physical activity is taken from the academics including increased concentration; improved mathematics, reading, and writing test scores; and reduced disruptive behaviour;
. The California Department of Education Healthy Kids Program found the lowest performing schools had lower student physical activity levels, with little difference across schools in the top three quintiles. This suggests lowest performing schools may benefit from quality physical fitness programs; and
. A California Department of Education study found physically fit children perform better academically showing a distinct relationship between academic achievement and the physical fitness of California’s public school students;
. Nutrition. U.S. DHHS found that eating breakfast improved academic, behavioural, and emotional functioning;
. Nutrition. Appropriate diet studies found improved problem-solving skills, test scores, and school attendance rates.
. Absenteeism among students is clearly associated with school failure. Students missing more than 10 days of school in a 90-day semester had trouble remaining at their grade level. School-based health services reduce absenteeism by providing on site services.”
On the other hand, Dalzell-Ward (1974:23), a medical practitioner, commented that, “The deprivation of energy foods will result in excessive fatigue which will in turn diminish social and work performance and interfere with well-being.” Someone may argue that this position is biased as this represents a particular stance. But another medical practitioner and research, Schneider (1958:27), some sixteen (16) years prior to Dalzell-Ward wrote on physical education that, “its contribution to health are direct as organic power is developed, as the body structure and function are influenced, and as the activity serves the child’s urge to play and bring pleasure and satisfaction as important safeguards to his mental and emotional activity.” Meaning that foods directly impact on ones mental and physical well-being which is a significant contributor ingredient in academic performance as the latter phenomenon relies totally on mental and physical capability and ability to achieve successful results.
Therefore, what are the likely results of malnutrition? “Malnutrition adversely affects mental development, physical development, productivity, the span of working years – all of which significantly influence the economic potential of man,” Alan Berg (1973:9) said. Meaning that, without foods one will not have the capacity to function effectively as a normal human being. Which is reason why Alan Berg (1973:10) stated that, “malnutrition interferes with a child’s motivation, ability to concentrate and ability to learn, which ultimate affect the condition of the brain itself.” Is nutrition a new phenomenon in the last forty years? Answer – Berg (1973:13) offered the position from his research that, “The relationship of nutrition to productivity was well recognized a century ago by slave owners, to whom malnutrition meant depreciation of their capital.” Hence, this researcher is proposing that health offers one explanation of low academic performance. Continuing,
Kristina K Rudiger (2004) in an article entitled “School Health Programs and Academic Achievement” concurred with the researcher that, “In fact, many of today’s problems with students are actually health-related. Kids cannot learn if they are hungry, tired, hung over from alcohol, or worried about violence. We need to eliminate barriers that affect students’ readiness to learn. A variety of physical and mental conditions impact students’ school attendance and their ability to pay attention in class anger, and restrain from self-destructive impulses.”
Based on Rudger’s medical position, the researcher believes that dietary issues impact directly on the attention span, general achievement, short-term memory, social functioning and concentration that are needed in order that the pupils functioning productively and efficiently on examinations. Being that the Advanced Level Accounting examination requires an analytical mindset; a crucial tool is a sound mind that is attained through physical exercise, diet and a healthy being. Which are components for poor or good concentration? Rudiger (2004) said that, “Students’ health and its impact on their ability to perform well academically are receiving attention. Recent research examines how incorporating school health education and exercise improve academic performance.” A research conducted by the University of Washington concurred with Rudiger that “health impairments can result in a range of academic challenges for a student. Problems include missing class for unpredictable and prolonged time periods and difficulties attending classes full-time or on a daily basis.” The University continued by stating that, “health problems may also interfere with the physical skills needed to complete laboratory, computer, or writing assignments.” Meaning there is a relationship between academic performances and the impact of health, and the social factors on the individual who writes examinations. The Washington University posited that asthma, multiple sclerosis, arthritis, heart disease have had temporary to chronic impact on students’ academic performances. “The secondary effects of illness and the side effects of medications can have a significant impact on memory, attention, strength, endurance, and energy levels,” the University of Washington said. Is this, therefore, answering the question on the low performances of our Jamaican students on the Advanced Level accounting examination as shown by table 1 (pp.2).
The National College Health Assessment (NCHA, 2004) in an article entitled “Health Issues Impacting the Academic Performance of Cal Poly Pomona Students” revealed the following: “Mental health issues such as stress, sleep difficulties, relationship difficulties, and depression have the most significant impact on academic performance; Cold, flu, and sore throat, frequent reasons for visits to the Student Health Services are the second most common causes of poor academic performance among all college students; the use of alcohol causes a negative impact on academic performance.”
Another research revealed that, “Although Iowa progresses in school improvement, there is an emerging crisis to improve students achievement because some students continue to perform poorly and come to school not ready or able to learn. With all students being at risk and over one-half of all students having health conditions, research links healthy students and improved academic achievement. This scientific research provides direction for school to incorporate school health programs to improve academic achievement. In addition, health promoting communities and schools are addressing the needs of students in poor health and not learning well, students with poor health practices that drain educational resources, and student choices affecting their health. The results are encouraging.”
The researcher, however, believes strongly that Advanced Level accounting students’ academic achievements cannot go unnoticed as indefinitely as the implications are profound for the society and so the matter must be addressed by focusing on eliminating barriers that affect those low performances. If a widespread case exist that students are entering class without being ready for schoolwork then the society’s primary focus must be on providing mechanism that will adequately address those conditions that will allow the students to function effectively and productively while at school. Among some of the barriers that must be tackled are physical, emotional, instructional materials, emotional, and social/health conditions that directly affect students’ ability to succeed on examinations.
Haralambos (1996) wrote that, “Despite the differences between them cultural deprivation and cultural capital theories both emphasize the importance of cultural factors. However, it is possible that material factors, such as family income, play a part in determining levels of attainment. Lower social classes may lack the money to provide their children with the same educational opportunities as middle and upper class parents. Greater resources may allow parents to provide children with toys that are more educational, a greater range of books, a superior diet, and more space in the home to do homework, greater opportunities for travel, private tuition and access to private fee-paying schools. In all these ways more affluent parents can provide their children with advantages before they attend school and during their school career.”
It should be noted that Haralambos’s position exhibits clearly that social class impacts on the future achievement and academic performance of the upper/middle class children within our society. In that the lack of money by the working-class (or lower class) inhibits their ability to provide the instructional resources, the diet, the psychological advantage and the access of human resources to enhance productivity of their children on examinations. Meaning, if the child/ren is/are not provided with the appropriate and adequate instructional resources that effectively and comprehensively covers a syllabus, the child is automatically placed at a disadvantage of high academic attainment. In addition, with the proper diet, many of the working class children’s brain is properly nourished to enable them to enter the class home as high recipient of information to write the various examination at some future date. No money spells low performance that indicates the disparity in achievement in educational achievement of the various classes in our society.
Is there a disparity between the sexes as it relates to academic achievement? “In 1987/88, 62 percent of females left schools in the United Kingdom with a least one GCSE grade A-C or equivalent whereas the figure for males was 54 percent. On the basis of similar figures, females now also perform slightly better at A’ Level but not by some other measure,” O’Donnell (1997:110) said. Professor Errol Miller from the Department of Arts and Education concurred with the general findings in United Kingdom, by showing in his book on the marginalization of men that, the females are outstripping their male counterparts in academic, occupation and other endeavours. The researcher would like the readers to understand that the previous argument is not sexist or feminist in nature but reflects the general reality of the present Jamaican experience (see Statistical Abstract on Jamaica as it relates to examination performance on the various disciplines at different level of the educational strata).
All the academic works previously cited and positions forwarded have offered a variety of views, reasons and explanations for the existence of the low academic achievement of people generally on competitive examinations. It is through this in formation that the researcher will guide his study in an attempt to discover if those views provide invaluable information on Advanced level accounting examination failure/success rate in the Jamaican context. As such, the low achievement of many Jamaicans on this examination is as a result of the physical factors, social factors or instructional resources. The researcher will also be able to decipher any differences in his findings and the findings of those studies, in order to see whether or not the causes are different and therefore need to be researched more and addressed by the Jamaican society.
Paul Andrew Bourne, M.Sc. (candidate), B.Sc. (Hons), Dip. Edu.
Graduate Assistant
The University of the West Indies
Mona Campus
KIngston7
Kingston, Jamaica
West Indies